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  1. Accueil
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  3. No 24 (2016): Afrika Zamani: Revue annuelle d’histoire africaine
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Numéro

No 24 (2016): Afrika Zamani: Revue annuelle d’histoire africaine

Issue Published : septembre 25, 2017

2 - Patterns of Migration and Population Mobility in Sudanic West Africa: Evidence from Ancient Kano, c. 800–1800 AD

https://doi.org/10.57054/az.vi24.1785
Akachi Odoemene

Corresponding Author(s) : Akachi Odoemene

akaigolo@yahoo.com

Afrika Zamani, No 24 (2016): Afrika Zamani: Revue annuelle d’histoire africaine
Article Published : janvier 19, 2022

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Résumé

Au cours des trois dernières décennies, les historiens de la migration en Europe et dans les Amériques ont de plus en plus critiqué l’idée d’une « transition de la mobilité », qui supposait que les sociétés prémodernes étaient géographiquement assez immobiles et que les populations n’ont commencé à se déplacer de manière inédite qu’à partir du dix-neuvième siècle. Partant de ce point de vue, le présent article présente des éléments attestant de la remarquable mobilité démographique dans l’ancienne Kano, sous une perspective de longue durée. Il reconstruit la nature et les rôles transformateurs de la migration constante et de la mobilité de la population à Kano, qui a permis d’énormes interactions sociales au sein des communautés culturelles distinctes et entre celles-ci et conduit à des changements socioculturels. Cela a valu à Kano sa réputation de grande métropole urbaine médiévale importante et remarquable dans l’ouest du Soudan. Ainsi, l’ancien Kano, comme ailleurs dans l’Afrique soudanaise, a connu une riche histoire de migration massive et systématique et de mobilité de la population depuis le neuvième siècle après Jésus-Christ.

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Modèles de migration mobilité de la population Afrique de l'Ouest soudanaise

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Akachi Odoemene. (2022). 2 - Patterns of Migration and Population Mobility in Sudanic West Africa: Evidence from Ancient Kano, c. 800–1800 AD. Afrika Zamani, (24). https://doi.org/10.57054/az.vi24.1785
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Les références
  1. Anon, n.d., ‘Ancient Kano City Wall (Kano)’. Available online at http://wikimapia.org/11477750/Ancient-Kano-City-Wall. Accessed on 27 September 2010.
  2. Anon, n.d., ‘Islam’. Available online at http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/46.htm. Accessed on 17 March 2011.
  3. Abdulsalam, I. K. O., 1980, ‘A Socio-economic Study of the Introduction and Impact of Islam to Ogbomoso, 1800–1979’, unpublished B.A. History Project, Bayero University Kano, Nigeria.
  4. Abubakar, S., 1989, ‘The Kwararafa Factor in the History of Kano’, in B. M. Barkindo, ed., Kano and Some of Her Neighbours, Zaria: Ahmadu Bellow University Press for the Department of History, Bayero University, Kano.
  5. Adamu, M., 1978, The Hausa Factor in West Africa History, Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press.
  6. Adamu, M. U., n.d. ‘Historical Origins of Kano’. Available online at http://www.kanostate.net/origin.html. Accessed on 28 September 2010.
  7. Albert, I., 1993a, Inter-ethnic Relations in a Nigerian City: A Historical Perspective of the Hausa–Igbo Conflicts in Kano, 1953–1991, Ibadan: IFRA.
  8. Albert, I. O., 1993b, ‘The Growth of an Urban Migrant Community: The Hausa Settlement in Ibadan, 1830–1979’, IFE: Annals of the Institute of Cultural Studies, No. 4, 1-15.
  9. Albert, I. O., 1994, ‘Urban Migrant Settlement in Nigeria: A Historical Comparison of the Sabon-Gari in Kano and Ibadan, 1893–1991’, unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of History, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
  10. Albert, I., 1996, Women and Urban Violence in Kano, Nigeria, Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited and IFRA.
  11. Al-hajj, M., 1968, ‘A Seventeenth Century Chronicle on the Origins and Missionary Activities of the Wangarawa’, Kano Studies, Vol. 1, No. 4, 7-42.
  12. Allen, C. H., 1895, ‘Kano’, The Anti-Slavery Reporter and Aborigines’ Friend, Vol. 15, No.
  13. (December).
  14. Baier, S., 1977, ‘Trans-Saharan Trade and the Sahel: Damergu, 1870–1930’, The Journal of African History, Vol. 18, No. 1, 37-60.
  15. Barkindo, B. M., ed., 1989, Kano and Some of Her Neighbours, Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press for the Department of History, Bayero University, Kano.
  16. Barth, H., 1966, Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa, Vol. 1, London: Frank Cass.
  17. Cohen, A., 1971, ‘Cultural Strategies in the Organization of Trading Diaspora’, in C. Meillassoux, ed., The Development Trade of Indigenous Market in West Africa, London: Oxford University Press, 266-281.
  18. East, R. M., 1933, ‘Littafin Tarihin Kano’, in R. M. East, ed., Labarum Hausawa da Makwabtansu, Lagos: C.M.S. Bookshop.
  19. Ehrhardt, D., 2008, ‘Struggling to Belong: Explaining Social Conflict in Kano’, Conference paper, Central European University, Popper Room, Monument Building, 25 September 2008.
  20. El-Arabi, Muhammadu Adamu (1933) ‘Al-ilan bi .tarikh Kano’, Unpublished Manuscript.
  21. Falola, Toyin and Heaton, Matthew (2008) A History of Nigeria, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
  22. Fika, Adamu M. (1978) The Kano Civil War and the British Overrule, Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press.
  23. Fisher, H.J. (1975) ‘The Sahara and the Central Sudan’, in Richard Gray, J.D. Fage, and R.A.Oliver (eds.) The Cambridge History of Africa: From c.1600 to c.1790, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  24. Frishman, Alan (1977) ‘The Spatial Growth and Residential Location Pattern of Kano,’ Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Northwestern University, United States of America.
  25. Frishman, Alan (1986) ‘The Impact of Islam on the Urban Structure and Economy of Kano, Nigeria,’ Journal of the Institute of Muslim Minority, Vol. 7(2), 464-475.
  26. Hodgkin, Thomas (1975) Nigerian Perspectives: An Historical Anthology, London: Oxford University Press.
  27. Hunwick, John (1994) ‘A Historical Whodunit: The So-called ‘Kano Chronicle’ and its Place in the Historiography of Kano,’ History in Africa, Vol. 21, 127-146.
  28. Johnson, Marion (1970) ‘The Cowrie Currencies of West Africa,’ Journal of African History, Vol. 11, 17-49.
  29. Kano Chronicles n.d. ‘Tarikh Arab Hadha al-balad el-Musamma Kano,"" the oft-quoted ""Kano Chronicles’ as translated by Palmer, H.R. (1908) Journal of Royal Anthropological Institute, Vol. 38, 59-98.
  30. Lacey, Linda (1985) ‘Interurban Flows of Population and Occupational Skills to Three Cities in Nigeria,’ International Migration Review, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Winter), 686-707.
  31. Last, Murray (1985) ‘From Sultanate to Caliphate: Kano, ca.1450-1800,’ in Bawuro M. Barkindo (ed.), Studies in the History of Kano, Ibadan: Heinemann, 67-92.
  32. Leo, John. (Africanus), (1896) Histories and Description of Africa. Translated by G. Pory (London: Hakluyt Society, Vol. 3).
  33. Lovejoy, Paul; Mahadi, Abdullahi and Mukhtar, Mansur I. (1993) ‘Notes on the History of Kano [1909]: A Lost Chronicle on Political Office,’ Sudanic Africa, Vol. 4, 7-76.
  34. Lugard, Frederick (1904) ‘Northern Nigeria,’ The Geographical Journal, Vol. 23(1) (January), 1-27.
  35. Lydon, Ghislaine (2009) On Trans-Saharan Trails: Islamic Law, Trade Networks, and Cross-Cultural Exchange in Nineteenth-Century Western Africa, New York: Cambridge University Press.
  36. Naniya, Tijjani M. (1990) ‘The Transformation of the Administration of Justice in Kano Emirate 1903-1966,’ Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Bayero University Kano, Nigeria.
  37. Naniya, Tijjani M. (2000) ‘Arab Settlers in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Survey of their Influence on Some Central Sudanese States,’ Kano Studies: A Journal of Savanna & Sudanic Research, Vol. 1(1), 1-12.
  38. Njeru, Purity. ‘The History of Kano,’ http://www.africanexecutive.com/modules/magazine/articles.php?article=2277. Accessed: 28 September 2010.
  39. Nnoli, Okwudiba (1978) Ethnic Politics in Nigeria, Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers.
  40. Nnoli, Okwudiba (2003) ‘Ethnic Violence in Nigeria: A Historical Perspective,’ www.indiana.edu/~workshop/papers/nnoli_021003.pdf. Accessed: 21 December 2006.
  41. Nwaka, Chiamaka (2008) ‘Dynamics of Conflict in Kano: Response to a Threatened Identity,’ paper presented at the Berlin Roundtables on ""Urban Planet: Collective Identities, Government and Empowerment in Megacities"", Social Science Center, Berlin (WZB), (10-16 June).
  42. Odoemene, Akachi (2008) ‘The Contexts of Colonialism and Ethnicity in indigene – Settler Relations: Comparative Historical Evidence from Social (Dis)Order in Two Nigerian Cities,’ in Zewde, Bahru (ed.), Society, State and Identity in African History, Addis Ababa: Association of African Historians and Forum for Social Studies, 231-256.
  43. Olaniyi, Rasheed (2003) ‘Ethnic Conflict, Security and Civil Society: Metropolitan Kano in Contemporary Times,’ in Fourchard, Laurent and Albert, Isaac Olawale (eds.), Security, Crime and Segregation in West African Cities since the 19th Century, Paris and Ibadan: Kharthala and IFRA, 333-343.
  44. Olaniyi, Rasheed (2004) ‘Yoruba Commercial Diaspora and Settlement Pattern in Pre- Colonial Kano,’ in Falola, Toyin (ed.), Nigerian Cities, Trenton and Asmara: Africa World Press, 77-79.
  45. Olaniyi, Rasheed (2005) ‘Community Vigilantes in Metropolitan Kano, 1985-2005,’ IFRA Occasional Paper, No. 17.
  46. Olaniyi, Rasheed (2005) ‘Kano: The Development of a Trading City in Central Sudan,’ in Ogundiran, Akinwumi (ed.), Precolonial Nigeria: Essays in Honor of Toyin Falola, Trenton and Asmara: Africa World Press, 301-318.
  47. Olaniyi, Rasheed (2006) ‘From Citizens to Strangers: British Rule and the Transformation of Yoruba Migrants’ Identity in Kano, 1913-1958,’ in Akinwumi, Olayemi; Okpeh, Okpeh and Gwamna, J.D. (eds.) Inter-Group Relations in Nigeria during the 19th and 20th Centuries, Makurdi: Aboki Press, 387-403.
  48. Osaghae, Eghosa E. (1994) Trends in Migrant Political Organizations in Nigeria: The Igbo in Kano, Ibadan: IFRA.
  49. Paden, John (1970) ‘Urban Pluralism, Integration and Adaptation of Communal Identity in Kano, Nigeria,’ in Cohen, R. and Middleton, J. (eds.), From Tribe to Nation in Africa: Studies in Incorporation Processes, Scranton, Pennsylvania: Chandler Publishing, 242-270.
  50. Paden, John (1973) Religion and Political Culture in Kano, Berkeley: University of California Press.
  51. Palmer, H. Richmond (1908) ‘The Kano Chronicle,’ The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 38 (January-June), 58-98.
  52. Saad, H.T. (1989) ‘Continuity and Change in Kano: Traditional Architecture’, in Barkindo, B.M. (ed.) Kano and Some of Her Neighbours, Zaria: Ahmadu Bellow University Press for the Department of History, Bayero University, Kano.
  53. Shankar, Shobana (2005) ‘Religion, State, and Society in Hausaland: History and the Politics of Incorporation in the Kano Chronicle,’ in Ogundiran, Akinwumi (ed.), Precolonial Nigeria: Essays in Honor of Toyin Falola, Trenton and Asmara: Africa World Press, 281-300.
  54. Shaw, Flora L. (1905) A Tropical Dependency, London: James Nisbet and Co. Ltd. Smith, Michael G. (1983) ‘The Kano Chronicle as History,’ in Bawuro M. Barkindo (ed.) Kano, Nigeria, Heinemann and Department of History, Bayero University, 31-56.
  55. Smith, Michael G. (1997) Government in Kano, 1350-1950, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
  56. Smith, Robert S. (1976) Kingdoms of the Yoruba, London: Longman.
  57. Whittlesey, Derwent (1937) ‘Kano: A Sudanese Metropolis,’ Geographical Review, Vol.27(2) (April), 177-199.
  58. Willet, Frank (1971) ""A Survey of Recent Results on the Radio Carbon Chronology of Western and North Africa,"" Journal of African History, Vol. XII(3), 368-384.
  59. Zelinsky, Wilbur (1971) ‘The Hypothesis of the Mobility Transition,’ Geographical Review, Vol. 61, No. 2 (April), 219-249.
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Les références


Anon, n.d., ‘Ancient Kano City Wall (Kano)’. Available online at http://wikimapia.org/11477750/Ancient-Kano-City-Wall. Accessed on 27 September 2010.

Anon, n.d., ‘Islam’. Available online at http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/46.htm. Accessed on 17 March 2011.

Abdulsalam, I. K. O., 1980, ‘A Socio-economic Study of the Introduction and Impact of Islam to Ogbomoso, 1800–1979’, unpublished B.A. History Project, Bayero University Kano, Nigeria.

Abubakar, S., 1989, ‘The Kwararafa Factor in the History of Kano’, in B. M. Barkindo, ed., Kano and Some of Her Neighbours, Zaria: Ahmadu Bellow University Press for the Department of History, Bayero University, Kano.

Adamu, M., 1978, The Hausa Factor in West Africa History, Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press.

Adamu, M. U., n.d. ‘Historical Origins of Kano’. Available online at http://www.kanostate.net/origin.html. Accessed on 28 September 2010.

Albert, I., 1993a, Inter-ethnic Relations in a Nigerian City: A Historical Perspective of the Hausa–Igbo Conflicts in Kano, 1953–1991, Ibadan: IFRA.

Albert, I. O., 1993b, ‘The Growth of an Urban Migrant Community: The Hausa Settlement in Ibadan, 1830–1979’, IFE: Annals of the Institute of Cultural Studies, No. 4, 1-15.

Albert, I. O., 1994, ‘Urban Migrant Settlement in Nigeria: A Historical Comparison of the Sabon-Gari in Kano and Ibadan, 1893–1991’, unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of History, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.

Albert, I., 1996, Women and Urban Violence in Kano, Nigeria, Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited and IFRA.

Al-hajj, M., 1968, ‘A Seventeenth Century Chronicle on the Origins and Missionary Activities of the Wangarawa’, Kano Studies, Vol. 1, No. 4, 7-42.

Allen, C. H., 1895, ‘Kano’, The Anti-Slavery Reporter and Aborigines’ Friend, Vol. 15, No.

(December).

Baier, S., 1977, ‘Trans-Saharan Trade and the Sahel: Damergu, 1870–1930’, The Journal of African History, Vol. 18, No. 1, 37-60.

Barkindo, B. M., ed., 1989, Kano and Some of Her Neighbours, Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press for the Department of History, Bayero University, Kano.

Barth, H., 1966, Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa, Vol. 1, London: Frank Cass.

Cohen, A., 1971, ‘Cultural Strategies in the Organization of Trading Diaspora’, in C. Meillassoux, ed., The Development Trade of Indigenous Market in West Africa, London: Oxford University Press, 266-281.

East, R. M., 1933, ‘Littafin Tarihin Kano’, in R. M. East, ed., Labarum Hausawa da Makwabtansu, Lagos: C.M.S. Bookshop.

Ehrhardt, D., 2008, ‘Struggling to Belong: Explaining Social Conflict in Kano’, Conference paper, Central European University, Popper Room, Monument Building, 25 September 2008.

El-Arabi, Muhammadu Adamu (1933) ‘Al-ilan bi .tarikh Kano’, Unpublished Manuscript.

Falola, Toyin and Heaton, Matthew (2008) A History of Nigeria, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.

Fika, Adamu M. (1978) The Kano Civil War and the British Overrule, Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press.

Fisher, H.J. (1975) ‘The Sahara and the Central Sudan’, in Richard Gray, J.D. Fage, and R.A.Oliver (eds.) The Cambridge History of Africa: From c.1600 to c.1790, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Frishman, Alan (1977) ‘The Spatial Growth and Residential Location Pattern of Kano,’ Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Northwestern University, United States of America.

Frishman, Alan (1986) ‘The Impact of Islam on the Urban Structure and Economy of Kano, Nigeria,’ Journal of the Institute of Muslim Minority, Vol. 7(2), 464-475.

Hodgkin, Thomas (1975) Nigerian Perspectives: An Historical Anthology, London: Oxford University Press.

Hunwick, John (1994) ‘A Historical Whodunit: The So-called ‘Kano Chronicle’ and its Place in the Historiography of Kano,’ History in Africa, Vol. 21, 127-146.

Johnson, Marion (1970) ‘The Cowrie Currencies of West Africa,’ Journal of African History, Vol. 11, 17-49.

Kano Chronicles n.d. ‘Tarikh Arab Hadha al-balad el-Musamma Kano,"" the oft-quoted ""Kano Chronicles’ as translated by Palmer, H.R. (1908) Journal of Royal Anthropological Institute, Vol. 38, 59-98.

Lacey, Linda (1985) ‘Interurban Flows of Population and Occupational Skills to Three Cities in Nigeria,’ International Migration Review, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Winter), 686-707.

Last, Murray (1985) ‘From Sultanate to Caliphate: Kano, ca.1450-1800,’ in Bawuro M. Barkindo (ed.), Studies in the History of Kano, Ibadan: Heinemann, 67-92.

Leo, John. (Africanus), (1896) Histories and Description of Africa. Translated by G. Pory (London: Hakluyt Society, Vol. 3).

Lovejoy, Paul; Mahadi, Abdullahi and Mukhtar, Mansur I. (1993) ‘Notes on the History of Kano [1909]: A Lost Chronicle on Political Office,’ Sudanic Africa, Vol. 4, 7-76.

Lugard, Frederick (1904) ‘Northern Nigeria,’ The Geographical Journal, Vol. 23(1) (January), 1-27.

Lydon, Ghislaine (2009) On Trans-Saharan Trails: Islamic Law, Trade Networks, and Cross-Cultural Exchange in Nineteenth-Century Western Africa, New York: Cambridge University Press.

Naniya, Tijjani M. (1990) ‘The Transformation of the Administration of Justice in Kano Emirate 1903-1966,’ Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Bayero University Kano, Nigeria.

Naniya, Tijjani M. (2000) ‘Arab Settlers in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Survey of their Influence on Some Central Sudanese States,’ Kano Studies: A Journal of Savanna & Sudanic Research, Vol. 1(1), 1-12.

Njeru, Purity. ‘The History of Kano,’ http://www.africanexecutive.com/modules/magazine/articles.php?article=2277. Accessed: 28 September 2010.

Nnoli, Okwudiba (1978) Ethnic Politics in Nigeria, Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers.

Nnoli, Okwudiba (2003) ‘Ethnic Violence in Nigeria: A Historical Perspective,’ www.indiana.edu/~workshop/papers/nnoli_021003.pdf. Accessed: 21 December 2006.

Nwaka, Chiamaka (2008) ‘Dynamics of Conflict in Kano: Response to a Threatened Identity,’ paper presented at the Berlin Roundtables on ""Urban Planet: Collective Identities, Government and Empowerment in Megacities"", Social Science Center, Berlin (WZB), (10-16 June).

Odoemene, Akachi (2008) ‘The Contexts of Colonialism and Ethnicity in indigene – Settler Relations: Comparative Historical Evidence from Social (Dis)Order in Two Nigerian Cities,’ in Zewde, Bahru (ed.), Society, State and Identity in African History, Addis Ababa: Association of African Historians and Forum for Social Studies, 231-256.

Olaniyi, Rasheed (2003) ‘Ethnic Conflict, Security and Civil Society: Metropolitan Kano in Contemporary Times,’ in Fourchard, Laurent and Albert, Isaac Olawale (eds.), Security, Crime and Segregation in West African Cities since the 19th Century, Paris and Ibadan: Kharthala and IFRA, 333-343.

Olaniyi, Rasheed (2004) ‘Yoruba Commercial Diaspora and Settlement Pattern in Pre- Colonial Kano,’ in Falola, Toyin (ed.), Nigerian Cities, Trenton and Asmara: Africa World Press, 77-79.

Olaniyi, Rasheed (2005) ‘Community Vigilantes in Metropolitan Kano, 1985-2005,’ IFRA Occasional Paper, No. 17.

Olaniyi, Rasheed (2005) ‘Kano: The Development of a Trading City in Central Sudan,’ in Ogundiran, Akinwumi (ed.), Precolonial Nigeria: Essays in Honor of Toyin Falola, Trenton and Asmara: Africa World Press, 301-318.

Olaniyi, Rasheed (2006) ‘From Citizens to Strangers: British Rule and the Transformation of Yoruba Migrants’ Identity in Kano, 1913-1958,’ in Akinwumi, Olayemi; Okpeh, Okpeh and Gwamna, J.D. (eds.) Inter-Group Relations in Nigeria during the 19th and 20th Centuries, Makurdi: Aboki Press, 387-403.

Osaghae, Eghosa E. (1994) Trends in Migrant Political Organizations in Nigeria: The Igbo in Kano, Ibadan: IFRA.

Paden, John (1970) ‘Urban Pluralism, Integration and Adaptation of Communal Identity in Kano, Nigeria,’ in Cohen, R. and Middleton, J. (eds.), From Tribe to Nation in Africa: Studies in Incorporation Processes, Scranton, Pennsylvania: Chandler Publishing, 242-270.

Paden, John (1973) Religion and Political Culture in Kano, Berkeley: University of California Press.

Palmer, H. Richmond (1908) ‘The Kano Chronicle,’ The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 38 (January-June), 58-98.

Saad, H.T. (1989) ‘Continuity and Change in Kano: Traditional Architecture’, in Barkindo, B.M. (ed.) Kano and Some of Her Neighbours, Zaria: Ahmadu Bellow University Press for the Department of History, Bayero University, Kano.

Shankar, Shobana (2005) ‘Religion, State, and Society in Hausaland: History and the Politics of Incorporation in the Kano Chronicle,’ in Ogundiran, Akinwumi (ed.), Precolonial Nigeria: Essays in Honor of Toyin Falola, Trenton and Asmara: Africa World Press, 281-300.

Shaw, Flora L. (1905) A Tropical Dependency, London: James Nisbet and Co. Ltd. Smith, Michael G. (1983) ‘The Kano Chronicle as History,’ in Bawuro M. Barkindo (ed.) Kano, Nigeria, Heinemann and Department of History, Bayero University, 31-56.

Smith, Michael G. (1997) Government in Kano, 1350-1950, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Smith, Robert S. (1976) Kingdoms of the Yoruba, London: Longman.

Whittlesey, Derwent (1937) ‘Kano: A Sudanese Metropolis,’ Geographical Review, Vol.27(2) (April), 177-199.

Willet, Frank (1971) ""A Survey of Recent Results on the Radio Carbon Chronology of Western and North Africa,"" Journal of African History, Vol. XII(3), 368-384.

Zelinsky, Wilbur (1971) ‘The Hypothesis of the Mobility Transition,’ Geographical Review, Vol. 61, No. 2 (April), 219-249.

Biographie de l'auteur

Akachi Odoemene

Department of History and International Studies, Federal University Otuoke, Nigeria.

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