6 - We Are the Sons of Mau Mau! Re-Assessing the Historiography of Resistance in Kenya, 1924-2008
Corresponding Author(s) : Mwangi J. Macharia
Afrika Zamani,
No. 17 (2009): Afrika Zamani: An Annual Journal of African History: Special Issue on Re-reading the History and Historiography of Domination and Resistance in Africa
Abstract
Mungiki is a politico-religious group and a banned criminal organization in Kenya. The organisation, which apparently originated in the late 1980s, is secretive and bears some similarity to mystery religions. Specifics of their origin and doctrines are unclear. What is clear is that they favour a return to indigenous African traditions and reject Westernisation and all trappings of colonialism. These include; rejection of Christianity, and the practice by the Mungiki of forced female genital cutting. The ideology of the group is characterised by revolutionary rhetoric, Kikuyu traditions, and a disdain for modernization, which is seen as immoral corruption. Their participation in recent ethnic wars in Kenya has evoked serious academic concerns on the group. What is interesting is that the followers of the so-called Mungiki youth sect, whose 500,000 members see themselves as ‘the true sons of the Mau Mau’. By using interdisciplinary approaches, I intend to show the myriad ways in which youth construct their own identity and how they derive power and inspirations from the past (Mau Mau). I not only introduce problems surrounding conceptions of Mungiki and the generation, but also show how conflicts between the young (Mungiki) and older (Mau Mau) generations reconfigure power in society.
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- Abbink, J., ed., Election Observation and Democratisation in Africa.
- Aguilar, M.I and Aguilar, L.B., 2000, Women’s Organising Abilities: Two Case Studies of Kenya and Malawi.
- Ahluwalia, D.P.S., 1996, Post-Colonialism and the Politics of Kenya, New York: Nova Science Publishers.
- Amoo, G.S., 1997, ‘The Need for a New Paradigm: Emergence Response Division’, UNDP, New York.
- Anderson, D., 2005, Histories of the Hanged: Britain’s Dirty War in Kenya and the End of the Empire, Northon, London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson.
- Arendt, H., 1970, On Violence. New York: Allan Lane.
- Assensoh, A.B., 1998, African Political Leadership: Jomo Kenyatta, Kwame Nkrumah, and Julius K. Nyerere, Malabar, Fla.: Krieger Pub.
- Ayakub, C., 1996, ‘A Time for a New Beginning’, Speech delivered at the Annual General Meeting of the Freedom of Expression Institute, Johannesburg.
- Bratton, M., 1995, ‘Are Competitive Elections Enough?’, Africa Demos, III, 4.
- Carver, R., 1997, ‘Deadly Marionettes: State-sponsored Violence in Africa’.
- Chenevix, T.C., 1993, Men Who Ruled Kenya: The Kenya Administration, 1892-1963, New York: Radcliffe Press.
- Clough, M.S., 1990, Fighting Two Sides: Kenyan Chiefs and Politicians, 1918-1940. Niwot, Colo.: University Press of Colorado.
- Decalo, Samuel, 1998, The Stable Minority: Civilian Rule in Africa, 1960-1990, Gainesville, Fla.: FAP Books.
- Frey, R.G. and Morris, C.W., 1991, Violence, Terrorism and Justice, Cambridge University Press.
- Guy, S., 1978, Labour Force Participation in, Low Income Countries, Geneva: ILO.
- Hameso, S., 1997, Ethnicity and Nationalism in Africa, New York: Nova Science Publishers.
- Haugerud, A., 1995, The Culture of Politics in Modern Kenya, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Himbara, D., 1994, Kenyan Capitalists, the State, and Development, Boulder, Colo.: L. Rienner.
- Ihonvbere, J. O., 1996, ‘Where is the Third Wave? A Critical Evaluation of Africa’s Non-Translation to Democracy’, Africa Today No. 43.
- Ihon”vbere, J. O., 1994, ‘The Irrelevant State, Ethnicity and the Quest for Nationhood in Africa’. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 17(1).
- Kanyinga, K.,1994, ‘Ethnicity, Patronage and Class in the Local Arena: High and Low Politics in Kiambu 1982-92’, in Kanyinga et al., The New Local Level Politics in East Africa, Uppsala: Nordiska, Research Report No. 95.
- Kanyinga, K., 1998, ‘Contestation over Political Space: The State and the Demobilization of Opposition Politics in Kenya’, in Olukoshi, ed., Economic Crisis, Multipartyism, and Opposition Politics in Contemporary Africa, Stockholm: Elanders Gotab.
- Kanyinga, K. and Sussie I., 1993, ‘Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) in Kenya: Implications on Lines of Women’s Workshop Report’, Nairobi: NCCK.
- Legum, C., 1990, ‘The Coming of Africa’s Second Independence’, The Washington Quarterly, Winter Issue.
- Maina, L., 2000, ‘Ethnicity in the Communities of Nakuru District’, Paper presented for the FORD Foundation Research Project on Ethnicity, Sommunity Relations and Civil Society in a Democratising Kenya: Perspectives from a New Generation.
- Maxon, Robert M., and Thomas P. Ofcansky, 2000, Historical Dictionary of Kenya, Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press.
- McElrath, Karen, ed., 2002, HIV and AIDS: A Global View, Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.
- Miller, Norman N. and Roger Yeager, 1994, Kenya: The Quest for Prosperity, Boulder,
- Colo.: Westview Press.
- Murunga, G. R., 1999, ‘Urban Violence in Kenya’s Transition to Pluralist Politics 1982- 1992’, Africa Development, Vol. XXIV, Nos. 1&2.
- Mwakikagile, Godfrey, 2001, Ethnic Politics in Kenya and Nigeria, Huntington, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers.
- Ogachi O., 1999, ‘Economic Reform, Political Liberalization and Economic Ethnic Conflict in Kenya’, Africa Development, Vol. XXIV, Nos. 1&2.
- Ogot, B.A., 1967, A Place to Feel at Home, London: Oxford University Press.
- Ogot, B.A., 1995, Decolonization and Independence in Kenya, 1940-93, London: Currey.
- Olukoshi, A., 1997, ‘The Elusive Prince of Denmark: Structural Adjustment and the Crisis of Governance in Africa’, Mimeo: Uppsala.
- Olukoshi, A., ed., 1998, The Politics of Opposition in Contemporary Africa, Stockholm: Elanders Gotab.
- Philips, J., 1999, Personal Testimony: Malawi.
- Rafael, B. R. A., 1985, Short History of Malawi, Limbe: Montfort Press.
- Rosberg, G. and Nortingham, J.C.,1966, The Myth of ‘Mau Mau’ Nationalism in Kenya, Nairobi, EAPH.
- Sobania, N. W. Culture and Customs of Kenya. Westport, Ct.: Greenwood Press, 2003.
- Thomas-Slayter, Barbara P., 1995, Gender, Environment, and Development in Kenya: A Grassroots Perspective, Boulder, Colo.: L. Rienner.
- Thomas-Slayter, Barbara P., 1998, Multi-Party Politics in Kenya,Athens: Ohio University Press.
- Watson, Mary Ann, ed., 2000, Modern Kenya: Social Issues and Perspectives, Lanham, Md.: University Press of America.
- Widner, Jennifer A., 1992, The Rise of a Party-state in Kenya: From ‘Harambee’ to ‘Nyayo’, Berkeley: University of California, 1992.
References
Abbink, J., ed., Election Observation and Democratisation in Africa.
Aguilar, M.I and Aguilar, L.B., 2000, Women’s Organising Abilities: Two Case Studies of Kenya and Malawi.
Ahluwalia, D.P.S., 1996, Post-Colonialism and the Politics of Kenya, New York: Nova Science Publishers.
Amoo, G.S., 1997, ‘The Need for a New Paradigm: Emergence Response Division’, UNDP, New York.
Anderson, D., 2005, Histories of the Hanged: Britain’s Dirty War in Kenya and the End of the Empire, Northon, London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson.
Arendt, H., 1970, On Violence. New York: Allan Lane.
Assensoh, A.B., 1998, African Political Leadership: Jomo Kenyatta, Kwame Nkrumah, and Julius K. Nyerere, Malabar, Fla.: Krieger Pub.
Ayakub, C., 1996, ‘A Time for a New Beginning’, Speech delivered at the Annual General Meeting of the Freedom of Expression Institute, Johannesburg.
Bratton, M., 1995, ‘Are Competitive Elections Enough?’, Africa Demos, III, 4.
Carver, R., 1997, ‘Deadly Marionettes: State-sponsored Violence in Africa’.
Chenevix, T.C., 1993, Men Who Ruled Kenya: The Kenya Administration, 1892-1963, New York: Radcliffe Press.
Clough, M.S., 1990, Fighting Two Sides: Kenyan Chiefs and Politicians, 1918-1940. Niwot, Colo.: University Press of Colorado.
Decalo, Samuel, 1998, The Stable Minority: Civilian Rule in Africa, 1960-1990, Gainesville, Fla.: FAP Books.
Frey, R.G. and Morris, C.W., 1991, Violence, Terrorism and Justice, Cambridge University Press.
Guy, S., 1978, Labour Force Participation in, Low Income Countries, Geneva: ILO.
Hameso, S., 1997, Ethnicity and Nationalism in Africa, New York: Nova Science Publishers.
Haugerud, A., 1995, The Culture of Politics in Modern Kenya, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Himbara, D., 1994, Kenyan Capitalists, the State, and Development, Boulder, Colo.: L. Rienner.
Ihonvbere, J. O., 1996, ‘Where is the Third Wave? A Critical Evaluation of Africa’s Non-Translation to Democracy’, Africa Today No. 43.
Ihon”vbere, J. O., 1994, ‘The Irrelevant State, Ethnicity and the Quest for Nationhood in Africa’. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 17(1).
Kanyinga, K.,1994, ‘Ethnicity, Patronage and Class in the Local Arena: High and Low Politics in Kiambu 1982-92’, in Kanyinga et al., The New Local Level Politics in East Africa, Uppsala: Nordiska, Research Report No. 95.
Kanyinga, K., 1998, ‘Contestation over Political Space: The State and the Demobilization of Opposition Politics in Kenya’, in Olukoshi, ed., Economic Crisis, Multipartyism, and Opposition Politics in Contemporary Africa, Stockholm: Elanders Gotab.
Kanyinga, K. and Sussie I., 1993, ‘Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) in Kenya: Implications on Lines of Women’s Workshop Report’, Nairobi: NCCK.
Legum, C., 1990, ‘The Coming of Africa’s Second Independence’, The Washington Quarterly, Winter Issue.
Maina, L., 2000, ‘Ethnicity in the Communities of Nakuru District’, Paper presented for the FORD Foundation Research Project on Ethnicity, Sommunity Relations and Civil Society in a Democratising Kenya: Perspectives from a New Generation.
Maxon, Robert M., and Thomas P. Ofcansky, 2000, Historical Dictionary of Kenya, Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press.
McElrath, Karen, ed., 2002, HIV and AIDS: A Global View, Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.
Miller, Norman N. and Roger Yeager, 1994, Kenya: The Quest for Prosperity, Boulder,
Colo.: Westview Press.
Murunga, G. R., 1999, ‘Urban Violence in Kenya’s Transition to Pluralist Politics 1982- 1992’, Africa Development, Vol. XXIV, Nos. 1&2.
Mwakikagile, Godfrey, 2001, Ethnic Politics in Kenya and Nigeria, Huntington, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers.
Ogachi O., 1999, ‘Economic Reform, Political Liberalization and Economic Ethnic Conflict in Kenya’, Africa Development, Vol. XXIV, Nos. 1&2.
Ogot, B.A., 1967, A Place to Feel at Home, London: Oxford University Press.
Ogot, B.A., 1995, Decolonization and Independence in Kenya, 1940-93, London: Currey.
Olukoshi, A., 1997, ‘The Elusive Prince of Denmark: Structural Adjustment and the Crisis of Governance in Africa’, Mimeo: Uppsala.
Olukoshi, A., ed., 1998, The Politics of Opposition in Contemporary Africa, Stockholm: Elanders Gotab.
Philips, J., 1999, Personal Testimony: Malawi.
Rafael, B. R. A., 1985, Short History of Malawi, Limbe: Montfort Press.
Rosberg, G. and Nortingham, J.C.,1966, The Myth of ‘Mau Mau’ Nationalism in Kenya, Nairobi, EAPH.
Sobania, N. W. Culture and Customs of Kenya. Westport, Ct.: Greenwood Press, 2003.
Thomas-Slayter, Barbara P., 1995, Gender, Environment, and Development in Kenya: A Grassroots Perspective, Boulder, Colo.: L. Rienner.
Thomas-Slayter, Barbara P., 1998, Multi-Party Politics in Kenya,Athens: Ohio University Press.
Watson, Mary Ann, ed., 2000, Modern Kenya: Social Issues and Perspectives, Lanham, Md.: University Press of America.
Widner, Jennifer A., 1992, The Rise of a Party-state in Kenya: From ‘Harambee’ to ‘Nyayo’, Berkeley: University of California, 1992.