3 - Gender and Perceptions of Academic Work in South Africa
Corresponding Author(s) : Damian Ruth Seck
Journal of Higher Education in Africa,
Vol. 3 No. 03 (2005): Journal of Higher Education in Africa
Abstract
fhis article examines perceptions of South African academics regarding academic workload, specifically the distribution of aspects of academic work; the determi oants of teaching load; the determinants of remuneration; the purpose of staff de velopment programmes; and decision-making in departments. lt reviews the way research, teaching, administration and service are each subject to gendering and are also situated relative to one another in a gendered way.
Findings indicate that there are significant differences between females and. males in opinions about and per ceptions of academic work. Females tend to be more conditional in their responses. Findings also, however, reveal inconsistencies and confound expectations arising from the literature. For example, females do not report significant discrimination about decision-making in departments. This study questions whether survey re ;earch can 'access' the evidence disclosed by qualitative research.
Keywords
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- A.cker, S., 1992, 'New Perspectives on an Old Problem: the Position of Women Academics in British Higher Education', Higher Education 24: 57-75.
- A.jayi, J.F. Ade, Lameck, K., Goma, H., & Ampah Johnson, G., 1996, The African Experience with Higher Education, Accra: The Association of African Univer sities.
- A.ltbach, Philip G., 1996, 'The International Academic Profession', Boston: Boston College Center for International Higher Education and the Carnegie Founda tion for the Advancement ofTeaching.
- A.ronowitz, S., 2000, The Knowledge Factory: Dismantling the Corporate Univer sity and Creating True Higher Learning, Boston: Beacon Press.
- Asmar, Christine, 1999, 'Is there a GenderedAgenda inAcademia? The Research Experience of Female and Male PhD Graduates in Australian Universities', Higher Education 38: 255-73. AssociationofUniversityTeachers, 2001, The Gender Pay Gap Widens 1995-2000, London: Association of University Teachers.
- Bailyn, L., 2003, 'Academic Careers and Gender Equity: Lessons Learned from MIT', Gender, WotkandOrganization 10(2): 137-53.
- Baldwin, G., 1985, Women at Monash University. Monash, Australia: Monash Uni versity.
- Barr, J., 1999, Liberating Knowledge: Research, Feminism and Adult Education, Leicester: National Institute of Adult Continuing Education.
- Bazeley, P., 1998, 'Peer Review and Panel Decisions in the Assessment of Austral ian Research Council Project GrantApplicants: What Counts in a Highly Com petitive Context?', Research in Higher Education 35 (4): 435-452.
- Benshop, Y., & Brouns, M., 200), 'Crumbling Ivory Tower: Academic Organizing and its Gender Effects', Gender, Work and Organization 10 (2): 194-212.
- Blackmore, Julie, 1993, 'In the Shadow of Men: the Historical Construction of Administration as a "Masculine" Enterprise', in J. Blackmore and J. Kenway, ed., Gender Matters in Educational Administration and Po/icy, London: Falmer Press.
- Blackmore, Julie, 1997, 'Level Playing Field? Feminist Observations on Global/ Local Articulations of the Re-Gendering and Restructuring ofEducational Work', International Review of Education 43(5-6): 439-61.
- Brace, N., Kemp, R., & Snelgar, R., 2000, SPSS for Pschologists, Basingstoke: Palgrave.
- Bronstein, Phyllis, and Farnsworth, Lori, 1998, 'Gender Differences in Faculty Ex periences oflnterpersonal Climate and Processes for Advancement', Research in Higher Education 39(5): 557-85.
- Brooks, A.,1997, Academic Women, Buckingham: The Society for Research into Higher Education, Open University Press.
- Burgess, T.F., Lewis, H.A., & Mobbs, T., 2003, 'Academic Workload Planning Revisited'. Higher Education, 46: 215-33.
- Castleman, T., Allen, M., Bastalich, W., et al., 1995, Limited Access: Women s Disadvantage in Higher Education Employment, Melbourne: National Tertiary Edu cation Union (NTEU).
- Central Statistics Service, 1998, Men and Women in South Africa, Pretoria: Central Statistics Service.
- Chisholm, L., & Unterhalter, E., 1999, 'Gender, Education and the Transition to Democracy: Research, Theory and Policy in SouthAfrica c. 1980-1998'. Trans formation, 39, 1-25.
- Chisholm, L., 200l, 'Gender and Leadership in South African Education Adminis tration', Gender and Education, 13(4), 387-399.
- Coady, T. (Ed) 2000, Why Universities Matter: A Conversation about Values, Means and Directions. St Leonards, NSW, Aus: Allen and Unwin.
- Cooper, D., & Subotzky, G, 2001, The Skewed Revolution: Trends in SouthAfrican Higher Education.
- Cape Town: Bellville: University of the Western Cape, Edu cation Policy Unit Coyle,A., 1989, 'Women and Management: FitWork forWomen?'In S. Cole &A.
- Coyle (Eds.), Women Educating Women: Exploring the Potential of Open Learning. London: Open UnÎversity and City University London.
- Currie, J., Harris, P., and Thiele, B., 2000, 'Sacrifices in Greedy Universities: Are they Gendered?', Gender and Education 12(3): 268-291.
- Davis, D.E., and Astin, H.S., 1990, 'Life Cycle, Career Patterns and GenderStrati fication in Academe: Breaking Myths and Exposing Truths', in Stiver Lie, S., and O'Leary, V.E. (eds.), Storming the Tower Women in the Academic World. London: Kogan Page; New York: Nichols/GP.
- Deem, R., 2003, 'Gender, Organizational Cultures and the Practices ofManager Academics in UK Universities', Gender, Work and Organization 10(2): 239- 59.
- Denis, D., 2003, 'Alternatives to Null Hypothesis Significance Testing, Theory and Science', http://theory and science.icaap.org/content/vo14.1/02_denis.html, accessed 15 September 2003.
- Department of Education, & Department of Labour., 2001, A Nation at Workfor a Better Life for Ali: Human Resource Development Strategy for South Africa. Pretoria: Department of Education and Department of Labour.
- Dines, E., 1993, Women in Higher Education Management, Paris: UNESCO. Elg, U., and Jonnergard, K., 2003, 'The Inclusion of Female Phd Students in Academia: a Case Study of a Swedish University Department', Gender, Work and Organization 10(2): 154-74.
- Esterhuyse, W.P., 1992, 'The Transformation of South African Universities: The Perspective of a Historically White University', in Tertiary Education in a Chang ing South Africa. ed. by C.A. Taylor, Port Elizabeth: University of Port Eliza beth.
- Etzkowitz, H., Kemelgor, C., Neuschatz, M., et al., 1992, 'Athena Unbound: Barriers to Women in Academic Science and Engineering', Science and Public Policy 19: 157-79.
- Etzkowitz, H., Kemelgor, C., Neuschatz, M., et al., 1994, 'Barriers to Women in Academic Science and Engineering', in W. Pearson and 1. Fechter, eds., Who Will Do Science? Educating the Next Generation, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Fairweather, J.S., 1993, Faculty reward structures: toward institutional and profes sional homogenisation. Research in Higher Education, 34(5), 603-623.
- Fourie, Magda, 1999, 'Institutional Transformation at South African Universities: Implications for Academic Staff', Higher Education 38: 275-90.
- Fraser, N., and Nicholson, L., 1990, 'Social Criticism without Philosophy: An Encounter between Feminism and Postmodemism', in Feminism/Postmodemism, ed. by L. Nicholson, London: Routledge.
- Gibbons, M., Limoges, C., Nowotny, H., Schwartzman, S., Scott P., and Trow, M., 1994, The New Production of Knowledge, London: SAGE.
- illigan, C., ed., 1982, In a Different Voice: Psycho/ogy Theory and Women s Deve/opment, Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Pressiroux, H. A., and Myrsiades, K., 2001, Beyond the Corporate University: Culture and Pedagogy in the
- New Millennium, Maryland, USA: Rowrnan and Littelfield. lazer, J., Bensimon, E., and Townsend, B., 1993, Women in Higher Education,Needham Heights, MA: Ginn Press.
- melch, W.H., and Carroll, J.B., 1991, 'The Three R's ofConflict Management for Department Chairs and Faculty' ,Innovative Higher Education 16 (2): 107-123. umport, P.J., 2000, Academic restructuring: Organizational and change and insti
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- all, M., Symes, A., & Luescher, M., 2002, 'Govemance in South African Higher Education: Research report prepared for the Council on Higher Education'. Pre toria: Council for Higher ducaticm.
- araway, D., 1989, Primate Visions: Gender, Race and Nature in the World of Modern Science, New York: Routledge.
- arding, S., 1993, The Racial Economy of Science: Towards a Democratic Future. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
- argreaves, A., 1995, 'Development and Desire: A Post-Modem Perspective', in T. Guskey and H.
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- earn, James C., and Melissa S. Anderson, 2002, 'Conflict in Academic Depart ments: anAnalysis of Disputes over Faculty Promotion and Tenure', Research in Higher Education 43(5): 503-29.
- olton, S.A., 1995, 'It's Nothing New! AHistory ofConflict in Higher Education',New Directions Higher Education 92: 11-18.
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- aradima, O., 1986, Faculty activity analysis in the Universidad Tecnics Del Estabdo campuses. Santiago: University of Santiago.
- .erman, L., 1995, 'The Good Witch: 'Advice to Women in Management'. in L. Morley & V. Walsh (eds.), Feminist academics: Creative agents for change. London: Taylor and Francis.
- nights, D., and Richards, W., 2003, 'Sex Discrimination inUK.Academia', Gen ir, Work and Organization 10(2): 137-153.
- Kojaku L.K. and Zrebiec, L., 1983, Equitability of/nstructional Workload: Correlates of University Faculty Teaching Loads. New York: ERIC ED23126 l, document code RIENOVS83.
- Krefting, L.A., 2003, 'Intertwined Discourses ofMerit and Gender: Evidence from Academic Employment in the USA', Gender, Work and Organization, l 0(2), 137-153.
- Kulis, S., and Sicotte, D., 2002, 'Women Scientists in Academia: Geographically Constrained to Big Cities, College Clusters, or the Coasts?', Research in Higher Education 43(1): 1-30.
- Kyvik, S., 1995, Productivity Differences in Scientific Publishing, IMHE Seminar on Human Resources and StàffDevelopment, Technical University of Vienna.
- Leonard, P., 1998, Gendering change? Management, masculinity and dynamics of incorporation. gender and education, 10(1): 71-84.
- Lie, S., and Malik, L., 1994, The Gender Gap in Higher Education: World Tuar book of Education, London: Kogan Page.
- Luke, Carmen, 1997, 'Quality Assurance and Women in Higher Education', Higher Education 33: 433-51.
- Mabokela, Reitumetse Obakeng, 2003, '"Donkeys of the University": Organiza tional Culture and lts Impact on SouthAfrican Women Administrators', Higher Education 46: 129-145.
- Mannathoko, Changu, 1999, 'Theoretical Perspectives on Gender in Education: The Case of Eastern and Southern Africa', International Review of Education 45 (5/6): 445-460.
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- Morley, L., 1994, 'Glass Ceiling or Iron Cage: Women in UKAcademia'. Gender, Work and Organization, 10(2), 137-53.
- Nelson, J., 1996, Feminism, Objectivity and Economies, London: Routledge.
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References
A.cker, S., 1992, 'New Perspectives on an Old Problem: the Position of Women Academics in British Higher Education', Higher Education 24: 57-75.
A.jayi, J.F. Ade, Lameck, K., Goma, H., & Ampah Johnson, G., 1996, The African Experience with Higher Education, Accra: The Association of African Univer sities.
A.ltbach, Philip G., 1996, 'The International Academic Profession', Boston: Boston College Center for International Higher Education and the Carnegie Founda tion for the Advancement ofTeaching.
A.ronowitz, S., 2000, The Knowledge Factory: Dismantling the Corporate Univer sity and Creating True Higher Learning, Boston: Beacon Press.
Asmar, Christine, 1999, 'Is there a GenderedAgenda inAcademia? The Research Experience of Female and Male PhD Graduates in Australian Universities', Higher Education 38: 255-73. AssociationofUniversityTeachers, 2001, The Gender Pay Gap Widens 1995-2000, London: Association of University Teachers.
Bailyn, L., 2003, 'Academic Careers and Gender Equity: Lessons Learned from MIT', Gender, WotkandOrganization 10(2): 137-53.
Baldwin, G., 1985, Women at Monash University. Monash, Australia: Monash Uni versity.
Barr, J., 1999, Liberating Knowledge: Research, Feminism and Adult Education, Leicester: National Institute of Adult Continuing Education.
Bazeley, P., 1998, 'Peer Review and Panel Decisions in the Assessment of Austral ian Research Council Project GrantApplicants: What Counts in a Highly Com petitive Context?', Research in Higher Education 35 (4): 435-452.
Benshop, Y., & Brouns, M., 200), 'Crumbling Ivory Tower: Academic Organizing and its Gender Effects', Gender, Work and Organization 10 (2): 194-212.
Blackmore, Julie, 1993, 'In the Shadow of Men: the Historical Construction of Administration as a "Masculine" Enterprise', in J. Blackmore and J. Kenway, ed., Gender Matters in Educational Administration and Po/icy, London: Falmer Press.
Blackmore, Julie, 1997, 'Level Playing Field? Feminist Observations on Global/ Local Articulations of the Re-Gendering and Restructuring ofEducational Work', International Review of Education 43(5-6): 439-61.
Brace, N., Kemp, R., & Snelgar, R., 2000, SPSS for Pschologists, Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Bronstein, Phyllis, and Farnsworth, Lori, 1998, 'Gender Differences in Faculty Ex periences oflnterpersonal Climate and Processes for Advancement', Research in Higher Education 39(5): 557-85.
Brooks, A.,1997, Academic Women, Buckingham: The Society for Research into Higher Education, Open University Press.
Burgess, T.F., Lewis, H.A., & Mobbs, T., 2003, 'Academic Workload Planning Revisited'. Higher Education, 46: 215-33.
Castleman, T., Allen, M., Bastalich, W., et al., 1995, Limited Access: Women s Disadvantage in Higher Education Employment, Melbourne: National Tertiary Edu cation Union (NTEU).
Central Statistics Service, 1998, Men and Women in South Africa, Pretoria: Central Statistics Service.
Chisholm, L., & Unterhalter, E., 1999, 'Gender, Education and the Transition to Democracy: Research, Theory and Policy in SouthAfrica c. 1980-1998'. Trans formation, 39, 1-25.
Chisholm, L., 200l, 'Gender and Leadership in South African Education Adminis tration', Gender and Education, 13(4), 387-399.
Coady, T. (Ed) 2000, Why Universities Matter: A Conversation about Values, Means and Directions. St Leonards, NSW, Aus: Allen and Unwin.
Cooper, D., & Subotzky, G, 2001, The Skewed Revolution: Trends in SouthAfrican Higher Education.
Cape Town: Bellville: University of the Western Cape, Edu cation Policy Unit Coyle,A., 1989, 'Women and Management: FitWork forWomen?'In S. Cole &A.
Coyle (Eds.), Women Educating Women: Exploring the Potential of Open Learning. London: Open UnÎversity and City University London.
Currie, J., Harris, P., and Thiele, B., 2000, 'Sacrifices in Greedy Universities: Are they Gendered?', Gender and Education 12(3): 268-291.
Davis, D.E., and Astin, H.S., 1990, 'Life Cycle, Career Patterns and GenderStrati fication in Academe: Breaking Myths and Exposing Truths', in Stiver Lie, S., and O'Leary, V.E. (eds.), Storming the Tower Women in the Academic World. London: Kogan Page; New York: Nichols/GP.
Deem, R., 2003, 'Gender, Organizational Cultures and the Practices ofManager Academics in UK Universities', Gender, Work and Organization 10(2): 239- 59.
Denis, D., 2003, 'Alternatives to Null Hypothesis Significance Testing, Theory and Science', http://theory and science.icaap.org/content/vo14.1/02_denis.html, accessed 15 September 2003.
Department of Education, & Department of Labour., 2001, A Nation at Workfor a Better Life for Ali: Human Resource Development Strategy for South Africa. Pretoria: Department of Education and Department of Labour.
Dines, E., 1993, Women in Higher Education Management, Paris: UNESCO. Elg, U., and Jonnergard, K., 2003, 'The Inclusion of Female Phd Students in Academia: a Case Study of a Swedish University Department', Gender, Work and Organization 10(2): 154-74.
Esterhuyse, W.P., 1992, 'The Transformation of South African Universities: The Perspective of a Historically White University', in Tertiary Education in a Chang ing South Africa. ed. by C.A. Taylor, Port Elizabeth: University of Port Eliza beth.
Etzkowitz, H., Kemelgor, C., Neuschatz, M., et al., 1992, 'Athena Unbound: Barriers to Women in Academic Science and Engineering', Science and Public Policy 19: 157-79.
Etzkowitz, H., Kemelgor, C., Neuschatz, M., et al., 1994, 'Barriers to Women in Academic Science and Engineering', in W. Pearson and 1. Fechter, eds., Who Will Do Science? Educating the Next Generation, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Fairweather, J.S., 1993, Faculty reward structures: toward institutional and profes sional homogenisation. Research in Higher Education, 34(5), 603-623.
Fourie, Magda, 1999, 'Institutional Transformation at South African Universities: Implications for Academic Staff', Higher Education 38: 275-90.
Fraser, N., and Nicholson, L., 1990, 'Social Criticism without Philosophy: An Encounter between Feminism and Postmodemism', in Feminism/Postmodemism, ed. by L. Nicholson, London: Routledge.
Gibbons, M., Limoges, C., Nowotny, H., Schwartzman, S., Scott P., and Trow, M., 1994, The New Production of Knowledge, London: SAGE.
illigan, C., ed., 1982, In a Different Voice: Psycho/ogy Theory and Women s Deve/opment, Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Pressiroux, H. A., and Myrsiades, K., 2001, Beyond the Corporate University: Culture and Pedagogy in the
New Millennium, Maryland, USA: Rowrnan and Littelfield. lazer, J., Bensimon, E., and Townsend, B., 1993, Women in Higher Education,Needham Heights, MA: Ginn Press.
melch, W.H., and Carroll, J.B., 1991, 'The Three R's ofConflict Management for Department Chairs and Faculty' ,Innovative Higher Education 16 (2): 107-123. umport, P.J., 2000, Academic restructuring: Organizational and change and insti
tutional imperatives. Higher-·Education, 39: 67-91.
all, M., Symes, A., & Luescher, M., 2002, 'Govemance in South African Higher Education: Research report prepared for the Council on Higher Education'. Pre toria: Council for Higher ducaticm.
araway, D., 1989, Primate Visions: Gender, Race and Nature in the World of Modern Science, New York: Routledge.
arding, S., 1993, The Racial Economy of Science: Towards a Democratic Future. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
argreaves, A., 1995, 'Development and Desire: A Post-Modem Perspective', in T. Guskey and H.
Huberman, eds., Professional Deve/opment in Education, New York: Teachers College Press.
earn, James C., and Melissa S. Anderson, 2002, 'Conflict in Academic Depart ments: anAnalysis of Disputes over Faculty Promotion and Tenure', Research in Higher Education 43(5): 503-29.
olton, S.A., 1995, 'It's Nothing New! AHistory ofConflict in Higher Education',New Directions Higher Education 92: 11-18.
anter, R M., 1977, Men and Women of the Corporation, New York: Basic Books. aradima, O., 1983, Management information systems for faculty allocation in institutions ofhigher education: A case study for the Universidad de Santiago de Chile. Unpublished Unpublished EdD dissertation, Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York.
aradima, O., 1983, Management information systems for faculty allocation in institutions of higher education: A case study for the Universidad de Santiago de Chile. Unpublished Unpublished EdD dissertation, Teachers' College, Co lumbia University, New York.
aradima, O., 1986, Faculty activity analysis in the Universidad Tecnics Del Estabdo campuses. Santiago: University of Santiago.
.erman, L., 1995, 'The Good Witch: 'Advice to Women in Management'. in L. Morley & V. Walsh (eds.), Feminist academics: Creative agents for change. London: Taylor and Francis.
nights, D., and Richards, W., 2003, 'Sex Discrimination inUK.Academia', Gen ir, Work and Organization 10(2): 137-153.
Kojaku L.K. and Zrebiec, L., 1983, Equitability of/nstructional Workload: Correlates of University Faculty Teaching Loads. New York: ERIC ED23126 l, document code RIENOVS83.
Krefting, L.A., 2003, 'Intertwined Discourses ofMerit and Gender: Evidence from Academic Employment in the USA', Gender, Work and Organization, l 0(2), 137-153.
Kulis, S., and Sicotte, D., 2002, 'Women Scientists in Academia: Geographically Constrained to Big Cities, College Clusters, or the Coasts?', Research in Higher Education 43(1): 1-30.
Kyvik, S., 1995, Productivity Differences in Scientific Publishing, IMHE Seminar on Human Resources and StàffDevelopment, Technical University of Vienna.
Leonard, P., 1998, Gendering change? Management, masculinity and dynamics of incorporation. gender and education, 10(1): 71-84.
Lie, S., and Malik, L., 1994, The Gender Gap in Higher Education: World Tuar book of Education, London: Kogan Page.
Luke, Carmen, 1997, 'Quality Assurance and Women in Higher Education', Higher Education 33: 433-51.
Mabokela, Reitumetse Obakeng, 2003, '"Donkeys of the University": Organiza tional Culture and lts Impact on SouthAfrican Women Administrators', Higher Education 46: 129-145.
Mannathoko, Changu, 1999, 'Theoretical Perspectives on Gender in Education: The Case of Eastern and Southern Africa', International Review of Education 45 (5/6): 445-460.
Martin, R., 1998, Chalk Lines: The Politics of Work in the Managed University, London: Duke University.
Moja, T., and Cloete, N., 2001, Vanishing borders and new boundaries. In J. Muller, N. Cloete & S. Badat (eds.), Challenges of Globalisation: South African De bates with Manuel
Castells. Pinelands, Cape Town: Maskew Miller Longman/ Sunnyside, Johannesburg: Centre for Higher Education Transformation.
Moore, K.M., and Sagaria, M.A.D., 1991, 'The Situation ofWomen in Research Universities in the United States: Within the Inner Circles OfAcademic Power', in Women '.S' Higher Education in Comparative Perspective, ed. by G.P. Kelly and S. Slaughter, 185-200, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Morley, L., 1994, 'Glass Ceiling or Iron Cage: Women in UKAcademia'. Gender, Work and Organization, 10(2), 137-53.
Nelson, J., 1996, Feminism, Objectivity and Economies, London: Routledge.
Nkomo, S., 1991, 'Organising Women in SANSCO: Reflections on the Experience of Women in Organisation', Agenda 1O.
Perna, Laura W., 2001, 'Sex and Race Differences in Faculty Tenure and Promo tion', Research in Higher Education 42(5): 541-567.
Perry, R.P., Clifton, R.A., Menec, V.H., et al., 2000, 'Faculty in Transition: A Lon itudinalAnalysis of Perceived Control andType Of institution in yhe Research 165-194.
Poole, Millicent, Laurel Bornholt, and Fiona Summers, 1997, 'An International Study of the Gendered Nature of Academic Work: Sorne Cross-Cultural Explo rations', Higher Education 34: 373-96.
Prichard, C., and Deem, R., 1999, 'Wo managing Further Education: Gender and the Construction of the Manager in the Corporate Colleges ofEngland', Gender and Education 11(3): 322-42.
Sachs, J., and Blackmore, J., 1998, 'You Never Show you Can't Cope: Women in School Leadership Roles Managing their Emotions', Gender and Education 10(3): 265-279.
Santiago, Anna M., and Einarson, M.K.,1998, 'Background Characteristics as Pre dictors ofAcademic Self-Confidence andAcademic Self-Efficacy among Gradu ate Science and Engineering Students', Research in Higher Education 39(2): 163-98.
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