8 - Managing Religious Conflicts in Nigeria: The Inter-Religious Mediation Peace Strategy
Corresponding Author(s) : Mashood Omotosho
Africa Development,
Vol. 39 No. 2 (2014): Africa Development
Abstract
Nigeria with over 150 million people consists of muslims and christians who live across the country. The religious divide in the country criss- crosses more than 250 ethnic groups as well as deep political divisions that cross religious lines. Over the last decade, numerous ‘hotspots’ around the country have suffered from pervasive violent religious conflict, with devastating impact on the citizenry and the peaceful co- existence in the Nigerian state. The February 2000 anti-Sharia crisis in Kaduna, the religious riots in 2001 and 2004 in Bauchi State, the dispute over a perceived insult to islam during a beauty pageant in 2002, the riots over Danish cartoons depicting the Prophet Mohammed in 2006, and the August 2009 Boko Haram onslaught which led to major mayhem in the Northern parts of the country are all disturbing signs of this situation. It is not surprising therefore that the Federal Government of Nigeria and some non-governmental organisations have decided to pay special attention to this challenge by putting in place innovative structures designed to provide effective solutions to the phenomenon of violent religious conflicts in Nigeria. No doubt, the inter-religious mediation organ represents an energetic and indispensable vehicle for achieving lasting peace among divergent religious groupings in the country. The questions that beg for answers therefore include: What are the salient requirements for a successful policy of inter-religious mediation strategy in terms of religious conflict management, prevention and peace building? What are the most practical alternative ways of enhancing the capacity of the inter-religious mediation group to effectively resolve religious conflict in the country? In a nutshell, the study investigates the various religious conflicts vis-à-vis the eace strategy of the ‘inter-religious mediation’ groups in the country.
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- Agbaje, A., 1990, ‘Travails or the Secular State: Religion, Politics and the Outlook of Nigeria’s Third Republic’, The Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, XXXVIII.
- Ahmed, Isiyaku, 2007, ‘In Northern Nigeria, Inter-religious Peacemaking Precedes Development’, Kaduna, Nigeria, 8 November.
- Assefa, Hizkias, 1990, ‘Religion in the Sudan: Exacerbating Conflict or Facilitating Reconciliation’, Bulletin of Peace Proposals, Vol. 21, No. 3.
- Babangida, I.B., 2002, ‘Ethnic Nationalities and the Nigerian State: The Dynamics and Challenges of Governance in a Plural Nigeria’, Distinguished Annual Lecture, National Institute for Policy and Strategic Studies, Kuru, Nigeria.
- Bauwens, Werner and Luc Reychler, 1994, eds., The Art of Conflict Prevention, London: Brasseys.
- Berlin Declaration on Inter-religious Dialogue, 2008, Accessed at http://www.rfp- europe.eu/index.cfm?id=216896 on 11th of November, 2009.
- Blakely, Thomas D., Walter E., A. van Beek and Dennis L. Thomson, eds., 1994, Religion in Africa: Experience & Expression, London: James Currey.
- Carnegie Commission, 1997, ‘Preventing Deadly Conflicts: A Final Report’, Washington, DC: Carnegie Commission.
- Ceadel, Martin, 1987, Thinking About Peace and War, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Christian Solidarity Worldwide, 2012, ‘Recent Religious Violence in Central and Northern Nigeria’, Accessed Online at http://cswng.org/wp-content/uploads/ 2012/08/recent-religious-violence.pdf on 10 October, 2012.
- Costa, Gilbert, 2009, ‘Nigeria’s Taliban: How Big a Threat?’, Accessed at http://www.time.com/time/world/article/ on 17th November, 2011.
- Counted, Victor, 2009, ‘Causes of Religious Crisis in Nigeria’, Accessed at http://countedforchrist.blogspot.com/2009/07/causes-of-religious-violence-in-nigeria.html on 15 November, 2009.
- ‘Divine Intervention: Regional Reconciliation through Faith’, Accessed at http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid on 19 December, 2011.
- Egwu, S.G., 2001, ‘Ethnic and Religious Violence in Nigeria’, Abuja, African Centre
- for Democratic Governance (ARIGOV).
- Hill, Amelia and Asthana, Anushka, 2006, ‘Nigeria Cartoon Riots Kill 16’, The Observer, February 2006.
- Ibrahim, J., 1999, ‘Ethno-Religious Mobilisation and Sapping of Democracy in Nigeria’, in Hyslop, J., ed., African Democracy in the Age of Globalisation, Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press.
- Ibrahim, J., 2000, ‘The Transformation of Ethno-Religious Identities in Nigeria’, in Jega, A., ed., Identity Transformation and Identity Politics under Structural Adjustment in Nigeria, Stockholm: Elanders Gotab.
- Ibrahim, J., 1991, ‘Religious and Political Turbulence in Nigeria’, The Journal of Modern Africa Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1.
- Igbokwe, Casmir, 2000, ‘Nigeria: Sharia Riots: How 304 Were Killed in Aba, Owerri’, Accessed Online at http://allafrica.com/stories/200003010205.html on 17 November, 2012.
- Kazah-Toure, T., 2003, ‘Ethno-Religious Conflicts in Kaduna State’, Human Rights Monitor.
- Kukah, M.H., 1993, Religion, Politics and Power in Northern Nigeria, Ibadan: Spectrum.
- Kwaja, A., 2009, ‘Strategies for (Re)Building State Capacity to Manage Ethnic and Religious Conflict in Nigeria’, The Journal of Pan African Studies, Vol. 3, No. 3, September.
- Kwaja, A. Chris, 2008, ‘Ethnic and Religious Conflicts in Wase LGA, Plateau State, Nigeria’, in Best, S. G., ed., Causes and Effects of Conflicts in the Southern Zone of Plateau State, Nigeria, Ibadan: John Archers Publishers Limited.
- Mason, Barry and Chris Talbot, 2000, ‘Religious Conflicts in Nigeria’, Accessed at
- http://www.wsws.org/articles/2000/feb2000/nige-f28.shtml on 10 January, 2012. Mimiko. N.O., 1995, Crises and Contradictions in Nigeria’s Democratisation Programme: 1986-1993’, Akure: Stebak Printers.
- Olasope, O., 2012, ‘The Mindless Killings in Jos and Nigeria’s Culture of Impunity’, Accessed Online at http://nigerianecho.com/?p=3453 on 27 November, 2012.
- Olu-Adeyemi, Lanre, 2006, ‘Ethno-Religious Conflicts and The Travails of National Integration in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic’, Accessed at http://www.dawodu.com/ adeyemi3.htm on 16th November, 2011.
- Olukoju, A., 1997, ‘Nigeria: A Historical Review’, in F.U. Okafor, ed., New Strategies for Curbing Ethnic and Religious Conflicts in Nigeria, Enugu: Fourth Dimensions Publication.
- Paden, J., 2008, Faith and Politics in Nigeria: Nigeria as a Pivotal State in the Muslim World, Washington, DC: United States Institute for Peace (USIP).
- Polgreen, Lydia, 2008, ‘Deadly Nigerian Religious Clashes Kill Hundreds’, New
- York Times, 1 December, Accessed at http://www.tandemproject.com on 23 November, 2009.
- Princen, Thomas, 1992, Intermediaries in International Conflict, Princeton:
- Princeton University Press. ‘Religious Violence Rages in Nigeria’, Accessed at http://www.time.com/time/world/
- article/0,8599 on 19 February, 2012.
- Reychler, Luc, ‘Religion and Conflict’, The International Journal of Peace Studies, Accessed at http://www2.gmu.edu/programs/icar/ijps/vol2_1/Reyschler.htm on 2 March, 2012.
- Smock, David, 2007, ‘Divine Intervention: Regional Reconciliation through Faith’, Accessed at http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid on10 March 2012.
- Stedman, S., 1991, ‘Conflict and Conflict Resolution in Africa: A Conceptual Framework’, in Zartman, W., Conflict Resolution in Africa, Washington DC: Paragon Press.
- Takaya, B.J., 1992, ‘Religion, Politics and Peace: Resolving the Nigerian Dilemma’, in Olupona, J.K., ed., Religion and Peace in a Multi-faith Nigeria, Ile-Ife: Obafemi Awolowo University Press.
- The Straits Times, 2002, ‘100 Die in Nigerian Riot over Miss World Article’, The Straits Times, November 2002, Accessed Online at http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/ content/100-die-nigerian-riot-over-miss-world-article on 3 October, 2012.
- Turner, H.W., 1967, African Independent Church II: The Life and Faith of the Church of the Lord (Aladura), Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- UNESCO, 2003, ‘Final Declaration’, The International Congress on Dialogue of Civilization, Religion and Cultures in West Africa, The Abuja Statement, 15 - 17 December. Vanguard, 16 May, 2004.
- Weigel, George, 1991, ‘Religion and Peace: An Argument Complexified’, The Washington Quarterly, Spring/1991.
- Williams, P. and Toyin Falola, 1995, Religious Impact on the Nation State: The Nigerian Predicament, Aldershot: Aveburz Ashagate.
- Williamson, Roger, 1992, ‘Religious Fundamentalism as a Threat to Peace: Two Studies’, Life and Peace Studies, October.
References
Agbaje, A., 1990, ‘Travails or the Secular State: Religion, Politics and the Outlook of Nigeria’s Third Republic’, The Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, XXXVIII.
Ahmed, Isiyaku, 2007, ‘In Northern Nigeria, Inter-religious Peacemaking Precedes Development’, Kaduna, Nigeria, 8 November.
Assefa, Hizkias, 1990, ‘Religion in the Sudan: Exacerbating Conflict or Facilitating Reconciliation’, Bulletin of Peace Proposals, Vol. 21, No. 3.
Babangida, I.B., 2002, ‘Ethnic Nationalities and the Nigerian State: The Dynamics and Challenges of Governance in a Plural Nigeria’, Distinguished Annual Lecture, National Institute for Policy and Strategic Studies, Kuru, Nigeria.
Bauwens, Werner and Luc Reychler, 1994, eds., The Art of Conflict Prevention, London: Brasseys.
Berlin Declaration on Inter-religious Dialogue, 2008, Accessed at http://www.rfp- europe.eu/index.cfm?id=216896 on 11th of November, 2009.
Blakely, Thomas D., Walter E., A. van Beek and Dennis L. Thomson, eds., 1994, Religion in Africa: Experience & Expression, London: James Currey.
Carnegie Commission, 1997, ‘Preventing Deadly Conflicts: A Final Report’, Washington, DC: Carnegie Commission.
Ceadel, Martin, 1987, Thinking About Peace and War, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Christian Solidarity Worldwide, 2012, ‘Recent Religious Violence in Central and Northern Nigeria’, Accessed Online at http://cswng.org/wp-content/uploads/ 2012/08/recent-religious-violence.pdf on 10 October, 2012.
Costa, Gilbert, 2009, ‘Nigeria’s Taliban: How Big a Threat?’, Accessed at http://www.time.com/time/world/article/ on 17th November, 2011.
Counted, Victor, 2009, ‘Causes of Religious Crisis in Nigeria’, Accessed at http://countedforchrist.blogspot.com/2009/07/causes-of-religious-violence-in-nigeria.html on 15 November, 2009.
‘Divine Intervention: Regional Reconciliation through Faith’, Accessed at http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid on 19 December, 2011.
Egwu, S.G., 2001, ‘Ethnic and Religious Violence in Nigeria’, Abuja, African Centre
for Democratic Governance (ARIGOV).
Hill, Amelia and Asthana, Anushka, 2006, ‘Nigeria Cartoon Riots Kill 16’, The Observer, February 2006.
Ibrahim, J., 1999, ‘Ethno-Religious Mobilisation and Sapping of Democracy in Nigeria’, in Hyslop, J., ed., African Democracy in the Age of Globalisation, Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press.
Ibrahim, J., 2000, ‘The Transformation of Ethno-Religious Identities in Nigeria’, in Jega, A., ed., Identity Transformation and Identity Politics under Structural Adjustment in Nigeria, Stockholm: Elanders Gotab.
Ibrahim, J., 1991, ‘Religious and Political Turbulence in Nigeria’, The Journal of Modern Africa Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1.
Igbokwe, Casmir, 2000, ‘Nigeria: Sharia Riots: How 304 Were Killed in Aba, Owerri’, Accessed Online at http://allafrica.com/stories/200003010205.html on 17 November, 2012.
Kazah-Toure, T., 2003, ‘Ethno-Religious Conflicts in Kaduna State’, Human Rights Monitor.
Kukah, M.H., 1993, Religion, Politics and Power in Northern Nigeria, Ibadan: Spectrum.
Kwaja, A., 2009, ‘Strategies for (Re)Building State Capacity to Manage Ethnic and Religious Conflict in Nigeria’, The Journal of Pan African Studies, Vol. 3, No. 3, September.
Kwaja, A. Chris, 2008, ‘Ethnic and Religious Conflicts in Wase LGA, Plateau State, Nigeria’, in Best, S. G., ed., Causes and Effects of Conflicts in the Southern Zone of Plateau State, Nigeria, Ibadan: John Archers Publishers Limited.
Mason, Barry and Chris Talbot, 2000, ‘Religious Conflicts in Nigeria’, Accessed at
http://www.wsws.org/articles/2000/feb2000/nige-f28.shtml on 10 January, 2012. Mimiko. N.O., 1995, Crises and Contradictions in Nigeria’s Democratisation Programme: 1986-1993’, Akure: Stebak Printers.
Olasope, O., 2012, ‘The Mindless Killings in Jos and Nigeria’s Culture of Impunity’, Accessed Online at http://nigerianecho.com/?p=3453 on 27 November, 2012.
Olu-Adeyemi, Lanre, 2006, ‘Ethno-Religious Conflicts and The Travails of National Integration in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic’, Accessed at http://www.dawodu.com/ adeyemi3.htm on 16th November, 2011.
Olukoju, A., 1997, ‘Nigeria: A Historical Review’, in F.U. Okafor, ed., New Strategies for Curbing Ethnic and Religious Conflicts in Nigeria, Enugu: Fourth Dimensions Publication.
Paden, J., 2008, Faith and Politics in Nigeria: Nigeria as a Pivotal State in the Muslim World, Washington, DC: United States Institute for Peace (USIP).
Polgreen, Lydia, 2008, ‘Deadly Nigerian Religious Clashes Kill Hundreds’, New
York Times, 1 December, Accessed at http://www.tandemproject.com on 23 November, 2009.
Princen, Thomas, 1992, Intermediaries in International Conflict, Princeton:
Princeton University Press. ‘Religious Violence Rages in Nigeria’, Accessed at http://www.time.com/time/world/
article/0,8599 on 19 February, 2012.
Reychler, Luc, ‘Religion and Conflict’, The International Journal of Peace Studies, Accessed at http://www2.gmu.edu/programs/icar/ijps/vol2_1/Reyschler.htm on 2 March, 2012.
Smock, David, 2007, ‘Divine Intervention: Regional Reconciliation through Faith’, Accessed at http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid on10 March 2012.
Stedman, S., 1991, ‘Conflict and Conflict Resolution in Africa: A Conceptual Framework’, in Zartman, W., Conflict Resolution in Africa, Washington DC: Paragon Press.
Takaya, B.J., 1992, ‘Religion, Politics and Peace: Resolving the Nigerian Dilemma’, in Olupona, J.K., ed., Religion and Peace in a Multi-faith Nigeria, Ile-Ife: Obafemi Awolowo University Press.
The Straits Times, 2002, ‘100 Die in Nigerian Riot over Miss World Article’, The Straits Times, November 2002, Accessed Online at http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/ content/100-die-nigerian-riot-over-miss-world-article on 3 October, 2012.
Turner, H.W., 1967, African Independent Church II: The Life and Faith of the Church of the Lord (Aladura), Oxford: Clarendon Press.
UNESCO, 2003, ‘Final Declaration’, The International Congress on Dialogue of Civilization, Religion and Cultures in West Africa, The Abuja Statement, 15 - 17 December. Vanguard, 16 May, 2004.
Weigel, George, 1991, ‘Religion and Peace: An Argument Complexified’, The Washington Quarterly, Spring/1991.
Williams, P. and Toyin Falola, 1995, Religious Impact on the Nation State: The Nigerian Predicament, Aldershot: Aveburz Ashagate.
Williamson, Roger, 1992, ‘Religious Fundamentalism as a Threat to Peace: Two Studies’, Life and Peace Studies, October.