2 - Gender masked or self-inflicted pain: female circumcision, eradication and persistence in Central Kenya
African Sociological Review,
Vol. 4 No. 1 (2000): African Sociological Review
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- Agar M.H. 1996. 'Recasting the "ethno" in "epidemiology"'. Medical Anthropology. 16:391-403.
- Agar M.H. 1986. Speaking ofEthnography. Newbury Park, Sage Publications.
- Ahlberg B.M. 1991. Women sexuality and the changing social order: The impact of government policies on reproductive behaviour in Kenya. Philadelphia, Gordon and Breach.
- Ahlberg B.M. Kimani V.N. Kirumbi L. W Kaara M.W. Krantz I. 1997. 'The practice of male circumcision in Central Kenya and its implication for transmission and pre vention of STD/HIV'. African Sociological Review 1(1): 66-81.
- Ahlberg B.M. 1994. 'Is there a distinct African sexuality? A critical response to Caldwell'. Africa 64(2): 220-242
- Ahlberg B.M. Krantz I. Warsame M. Lindmark G. 2000. 'Female circumcision in flight: Eradication and persistence in a Swedish context' Manuscript.
- Amadiume I. 1997. Reinventing Africa: Matriarchy, religion and culture. London, Zed Books.
- Annandale E. 1998. The sociology of Health and medicine: A critical introduction. Polity Press, Malden.
- Beidelman T.0. 1982. Colonial evangelism: a socio-historical study ofan East African mission at the grassroots. Bloomington, Indiana University Press.
- Beidelman T.0. 1997. The cool knife: Imagery of gender, sexuality, and moral educa tion in Kaguru initiation ritual. The Smithsonian Institution Press, London.
- Berger P. and Luckmann T. 1967. The social construction of everyday life: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge. Penguin, Harmondsworth.
- Bums T.R. Baumgartner T. and Deville P. 1985. Man, decisions and society: The the ory of actor-system dynamics for social scientists. New York, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers.
- Caldwell J.C., Caldwell P., and Quiggin P. 1989. 'The social context of AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa'. Population and Development Review 15(2): 185-233.
- Carael M., Cleland J., Deheneffe J.C. and Adeokun L. 1992. 'Research on Sexual Behavior that Transmits HIV: The GPA/WHO Collaborative Surveys-Preliminary Findings'. In Dyson, T. Sexual Behavior and Networking: Anthropology and Socio-Cultural Studies on the Transmission ojHIV. Editions Derouaux-Ordina.
- Clark C.M. 1980. 'Land and food: women and power in the nineteenth century Kikuyu'. Journal of International African Institute, 50(4): 357-369.
- Dirie W. And Miller C. 1999. Desert Flower: the extraordinary journey of a desert nomad. London, Virago Press.
- Dorkenoo, E. & Elsworthy, S. 1994. Female Genital Mutilation: Proposals for change. London, Minority Rights Group International Report.
- Dorkenoo E. 1994. Cutting the rose. Female genital mutilation: the practice and its prevention. London. Minority Rights Group.
- Doyal L. 1995. What makes women sick? London, Macmillan.
- Eder D. Evans C.C. and Parker S. 1995. School talk: Gender and adolescent culture. New Jersey, Rutgers University Press.
- Elden M. and Chisholm R.F. 'Emerging varieties of action research: introduction to the special issue'. Human Relations. 46(2):121-142, 1993.
- Eliah E. 1999. 'Sambiny elders win United Nations population award'. Populi 25(4):ppl 1-13.
- Evans-Pritchard E.E. 1965. The position of women in primitive societies and other essays in social Anthropology. London, Faber.
- Ezzart D. 1995. 'Female genital mutilation: promise compromised'. Populi, 22(5/6):4-5.
- Farquhar C. (with Das R.) 1999. 'Are focus groups suitable for "sensitive" topics?' In Barbour R. and Kitzinger J. (ed). Developingfocus group research: Politics, theory and practice. London, Sage Publications.
- Fleischacker S. 1999. 'From cultural diversity to universal ethics: Three models'. Cultural Dynamics, 11(1):105-128.
- Foreman M. 1999. 'AIDS and men: Taking risks or taking responsibility'. London, Zed Books.
- Foucault M. 1984. 'Preface to the history of sexuality volume II'. In Rainbow P. (ed) The Foucault reader. Harmondsworth, Penguin.1976. The birth of the clinic: an archaeology of medical perception. London, Tavistock.
- Githiga J.G. 1996. Initiation and pastoral psychology: Towards African personality theory. USA. Githiga International Ministries.
- Greenwood D.J. and Levin M. 1998. Introduction to Action Research: Social Research for social change. Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications.
- Groves C.P. 1948-58. The Planting of Christianity in Africa I-IV. London, Lutterworth. Hayes, R.O. 1975. 'Female genital mutilation, fertility control, women's roles and the patrilineage in modern Sudan: a functional analysis'. American Ethnologist. 2(1): 617-637.
- Hubbard R. 1997. The politics of women's biology. New Brunswick, Rutgers Univer sity Press, Hinds P.S., Chaves D.E. and Cypess S.M. 1992. 'Context as a source of understanding and meaning'. In Morse J.M (ed). Qualitative health research. Newsbury Park, Sage Publications.
- Jones H. Diop N. Askew I. and Kabore I. 1999. 'Female genital cutting practices in Burkina Faso and Mali and their negative health outcomes'. Studies in Family Planning, 30(3): 219-230.
- Kenyatta J. 1938. Facing Mount Kenya. London.
- Kwaak V.: A 1992. 'Female circumcision and gender identity: A questionable alli ance'. Social Science and Medicine 35 (6): pp 777-787.
- Lane, S.D. and Rubinstein, R. A. 1996. Judging the other: responding to traditional genital surgeries. Hastings Centre Report.
- Lerner H.G. 1988. Women in therapy. New York, Harper and Row Publishers. Lightfoot-Klein, H. 1989.
- Prisoners ofritual: an odyssey into female genital circumcision in Africa. New York, The Hawthorn Press.
- Maccormack C.P. (ed) 1994. Ethnography of fertility and birth. Prospect Heights IL, Waveland Press.
- McLean, S. and Graham, S.E. 1985. Female circumcision, excision and infibulation: the facts and proposals for change. London, The Minority Rights Group Report No. 47.
- Mugambi J.N.K. 1989. African heritage and contemporary Christianity. Kenya, Longman.
- Murray J.M. 1974. The Kikuyu female circumcision controver y. with special refer ence to Church Missionary Society sphere of influence. University of California.
- Natsoulas T. 1998. 'The politicizationof the ban on female circumcision and the rise of the Independent School Movement in Kenya: The KCA, the missions and the gov ernment, 1929-1932'. Journal of Asian and African Studies, XXXll l (2): 137-158.
- Okin S.M. 1989. Justice, gender and the family. USA, Basic Books.
- Ondego 0. 'Dangerous: are men to blame for the AIDS scourge?' Daily Nation on the Web. Book Review.
- PATH/Kenya, 1993. Qualitative Research on female circumcision in four districts in Kenya. Nairobi.
- Philp H.R.A. 1925. 'Artificial atresia in Kikuyu women'. Kenya Medica!Journal 2(3): 86-94.
- Porter S. 1998. Social theory and nursing practice. London, Macmillan Press. Rounavaara H. 1997. 'Moral regulation: a reformulation'. Sociological theory. 15(3): 277-293.
- SeifE.l. DawlaA. Abdel Hadi A. and Abdel Wahab N. 1998. 'Women's wit over men: trade-offs and strategic accommodations in Egyptian women's reproductive lives'. In Petchesky R.P. and Judd K.
- Negotiating reproductive rights: women's cultures across countries and cultures. London, Zed Books.
- Schwartz P. and Rutter V. 1998. The gender of sexuality. Pine Forge Press. Showalter E. 1992. Sexual anarchy: Gender and culture at the fin de siecle. London, Virago Press.
- Schiller N.G., Chrystal S. and Lewellen D. 1994. 'Risky business: the cultural con struction of AIDS risk groups'. Social Science and Medicine 38 (] 0):1337-1346.
- Shuma M. 1994. 'The case ofMatrilineal Mwera ofLindi'. In Tumbo-Masabo Z. and Liljestrom R. (ed) Chelewa Chelewa: The dilemma of teenage girls. The Scandina vian Institute of African Studies.
- Thomas L.M. 1996. 'Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': The gender and genera tional politics of the 1956 ban on clitoridectomy in Meru, Kenya. Gender and His tory 8(3): 338-363.
- Toubia, N. 1994. Female genital mutilation: A call for global action. New York.
- UNAIDS 1998. Sex and Youth: contextual factors affecting risk of HIV/AIDS. Acom parative analysis of multi-site studies in developing countries.
- Warsame, A. Ahmed, S. and Talle, A. 1985. Social and cultural aspects of female cir cumcision and injibulation. Preliminary Rep01t. Somalia Academy of Sciences and Arts and Sarec.
- Wbite K. 1996. Why good girls don't get ahead but gut:,y girls do: nine secrets every career woman must know. Reading, Arrow Books.
- WHO 1998. Gender and health: technical paper, Geneva.
- Wilton T. 1997. EnGendering AIDS. Deconstructing Sex, Text and J:,,pidemic. London, Sage Publications.
- Wyatt G.E. 1997. Stolen women: reclaiming our sexuality, taking back our lives. New York, John Wiley & Sons.
- Beth Maina Ahlberg 1,2,3, Wangui Njau 4, Karanja Kiiru 4, Inge/a Krantz 3
- Department of Public Health, Division of International Health Care Research, Karolinska Institutet, Sweden,
- The Department of Sociology, Uppsala University, Sweden
- Skaraborg Institute for Research and Development, West Gotaland, Sweden
- Centre for the Study of Adolescent, Nairobi, Kenya. Correspondence: Beth Maina Ahlberg Skaraborg Institute for Research and Development Hertig Johans Torg 2 541 30 Skovde Sweden
References
Agar M.H. 1996. 'Recasting the "ethno" in "epidemiology"'. Medical Anthropology. 16:391-403.
Agar M.H. 1986. Speaking ofEthnography. Newbury Park, Sage Publications.
Ahlberg B.M. 1991. Women sexuality and the changing social order: The impact of government policies on reproductive behaviour in Kenya. Philadelphia, Gordon and Breach.
Ahlberg B.M. Kimani V.N. Kirumbi L. W Kaara M.W. Krantz I. 1997. 'The practice of male circumcision in Central Kenya and its implication for transmission and pre vention of STD/HIV'. African Sociological Review 1(1): 66-81.
Ahlberg B.M. 1994. 'Is there a distinct African sexuality? A critical response to Caldwell'. Africa 64(2): 220-242
Ahlberg B.M. Krantz I. Warsame M. Lindmark G. 2000. 'Female circumcision in flight: Eradication and persistence in a Swedish context' Manuscript.
Amadiume I. 1997. Reinventing Africa: Matriarchy, religion and culture. London, Zed Books.
Annandale E. 1998. The sociology of Health and medicine: A critical introduction. Polity Press, Malden.
Beidelman T.0. 1982. Colonial evangelism: a socio-historical study ofan East African mission at the grassroots. Bloomington, Indiana University Press.
Beidelman T.0. 1997. The cool knife: Imagery of gender, sexuality, and moral educa tion in Kaguru initiation ritual. The Smithsonian Institution Press, London.
Berger P. and Luckmann T. 1967. The social construction of everyday life: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge. Penguin, Harmondsworth.
Bums T.R. Baumgartner T. and Deville P. 1985. Man, decisions and society: The the ory of actor-system dynamics for social scientists. New York, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers.
Caldwell J.C., Caldwell P., and Quiggin P. 1989. 'The social context of AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa'. Population and Development Review 15(2): 185-233.
Carael M., Cleland J., Deheneffe J.C. and Adeokun L. 1992. 'Research on Sexual Behavior that Transmits HIV: The GPA/WHO Collaborative Surveys-Preliminary Findings'. In Dyson, T. Sexual Behavior and Networking: Anthropology and Socio-Cultural Studies on the Transmission ojHIV. Editions Derouaux-Ordina.
Clark C.M. 1980. 'Land and food: women and power in the nineteenth century Kikuyu'. Journal of International African Institute, 50(4): 357-369.
Dirie W. And Miller C. 1999. Desert Flower: the extraordinary journey of a desert nomad. London, Virago Press.
Dorkenoo, E. & Elsworthy, S. 1994. Female Genital Mutilation: Proposals for change. London, Minority Rights Group International Report.
Dorkenoo E. 1994. Cutting the rose. Female genital mutilation: the practice and its prevention. London. Minority Rights Group.
Doyal L. 1995. What makes women sick? London, Macmillan.
Eder D. Evans C.C. and Parker S. 1995. School talk: Gender and adolescent culture. New Jersey, Rutgers University Press.
Elden M. and Chisholm R.F. 'Emerging varieties of action research: introduction to the special issue'. Human Relations. 46(2):121-142, 1993.
Eliah E. 1999. 'Sambiny elders win United Nations population award'. Populi 25(4):ppl 1-13.
Evans-Pritchard E.E. 1965. The position of women in primitive societies and other essays in social Anthropology. London, Faber.
Ezzart D. 1995. 'Female genital mutilation: promise compromised'. Populi, 22(5/6):4-5.
Farquhar C. (with Das R.) 1999. 'Are focus groups suitable for "sensitive" topics?' In Barbour R. and Kitzinger J. (ed). Developingfocus group research: Politics, theory and practice. London, Sage Publications.
Fleischacker S. 1999. 'From cultural diversity to universal ethics: Three models'. Cultural Dynamics, 11(1):105-128.
Foreman M. 1999. 'AIDS and men: Taking risks or taking responsibility'. London, Zed Books.
Foucault M. 1984. 'Preface to the history of sexuality volume II'. In Rainbow P. (ed) The Foucault reader. Harmondsworth, Penguin.1976. The birth of the clinic: an archaeology of medical perception. London, Tavistock.
Githiga J.G. 1996. Initiation and pastoral psychology: Towards African personality theory. USA. Githiga International Ministries.
Greenwood D.J. and Levin M. 1998. Introduction to Action Research: Social Research for social change. Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications.
Groves C.P. 1948-58. The Planting of Christianity in Africa I-IV. London, Lutterworth. Hayes, R.O. 1975. 'Female genital mutilation, fertility control, women's roles and the patrilineage in modern Sudan: a functional analysis'. American Ethnologist. 2(1): 617-637.
Hubbard R. 1997. The politics of women's biology. New Brunswick, Rutgers Univer sity Press, Hinds P.S., Chaves D.E. and Cypess S.M. 1992. 'Context as a source of understanding and meaning'. In Morse J.M (ed). Qualitative health research. Newsbury Park, Sage Publications.
Jones H. Diop N. Askew I. and Kabore I. 1999. 'Female genital cutting practices in Burkina Faso and Mali and their negative health outcomes'. Studies in Family Planning, 30(3): 219-230.
Kenyatta J. 1938. Facing Mount Kenya. London.
Kwaak V.: A 1992. 'Female circumcision and gender identity: A questionable alli ance'. Social Science and Medicine 35 (6): pp 777-787.
Lane, S.D. and Rubinstein, R. A. 1996. Judging the other: responding to traditional genital surgeries. Hastings Centre Report.
Lerner H.G. 1988. Women in therapy. New York, Harper and Row Publishers. Lightfoot-Klein, H. 1989.
Prisoners ofritual: an odyssey into female genital circumcision in Africa. New York, The Hawthorn Press.
Maccormack C.P. (ed) 1994. Ethnography of fertility and birth. Prospect Heights IL, Waveland Press.
McLean, S. and Graham, S.E. 1985. Female circumcision, excision and infibulation: the facts and proposals for change. London, The Minority Rights Group Report No. 47.
Mugambi J.N.K. 1989. African heritage and contemporary Christianity. Kenya, Longman.
Murray J.M. 1974. The Kikuyu female circumcision controver y. with special refer ence to Church Missionary Society sphere of influence. University of California.
Natsoulas T. 1998. 'The politicizationof the ban on female circumcision and the rise of the Independent School Movement in Kenya: The KCA, the missions and the gov ernment, 1929-1932'. Journal of Asian and African Studies, XXXll l (2): 137-158.
Okin S.M. 1989. Justice, gender and the family. USA, Basic Books.
Ondego 0. 'Dangerous: are men to blame for the AIDS scourge?' Daily Nation on the Web. Book Review.
PATH/Kenya, 1993. Qualitative Research on female circumcision in four districts in Kenya. Nairobi.
Philp H.R.A. 1925. 'Artificial atresia in Kikuyu women'. Kenya Medica!Journal 2(3): 86-94.
Porter S. 1998. Social theory and nursing practice. London, Macmillan Press. Rounavaara H. 1997. 'Moral regulation: a reformulation'. Sociological theory. 15(3): 277-293.
SeifE.l. DawlaA. Abdel Hadi A. and Abdel Wahab N. 1998. 'Women's wit over men: trade-offs and strategic accommodations in Egyptian women's reproductive lives'. In Petchesky R.P. and Judd K.
Negotiating reproductive rights: women's cultures across countries and cultures. London, Zed Books.
Schwartz P. and Rutter V. 1998. The gender of sexuality. Pine Forge Press. Showalter E. 1992. Sexual anarchy: Gender and culture at the fin de siecle. London, Virago Press.
Schiller N.G., Chrystal S. and Lewellen D. 1994. 'Risky business: the cultural con struction of AIDS risk groups'. Social Science and Medicine 38 (] 0):1337-1346.
Shuma M. 1994. 'The case ofMatrilineal Mwera ofLindi'. In Tumbo-Masabo Z. and Liljestrom R. (ed) Chelewa Chelewa: The dilemma of teenage girls. The Scandina vian Institute of African Studies.
Thomas L.M. 1996. 'Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': The gender and genera tional politics of the 1956 ban on clitoridectomy in Meru, Kenya. Gender and His tory 8(3): 338-363.
Toubia, N. 1994. Female genital mutilation: A call for global action. New York.
UNAIDS 1998. Sex and Youth: contextual factors affecting risk of HIV/AIDS. Acom parative analysis of multi-site studies in developing countries.
Warsame, A. Ahmed, S. and Talle, A. 1985. Social and cultural aspects of female cir cumcision and injibulation. Preliminary Rep01t. Somalia Academy of Sciences and Arts and Sarec.
Wbite K. 1996. Why good girls don't get ahead but gut:,y girls do: nine secrets every career woman must know. Reading, Arrow Books.
WHO 1998. Gender and health: technical paper, Geneva.
Wilton T. 1997. EnGendering AIDS. Deconstructing Sex, Text and J:,,pidemic. London, Sage Publications.
Wyatt G.E. 1997. Stolen women: reclaiming our sexuality, taking back our lives. New York, John Wiley & Sons.
Beth Maina Ahlberg 1,2,3, Wangui Njau 4, Karanja Kiiru 4, Inge/a Krantz 3
Department of Public Health, Division of International Health Care Research, Karolinska Institutet, Sweden,
The Department of Sociology, Uppsala University, Sweden
Skaraborg Institute for Research and Development, West Gotaland, Sweden
Centre for the Study of Adolescent, Nairobi, Kenya. Correspondence: Beth Maina Ahlberg Skaraborg Institute for Research and Development Hertig Johans Torg 2 541 30 Skovde Sweden