8 - The Western Super-Powers and the Liberation Struggle in Africa: The Politics of Imperialism, Domination and Resistance, 1948-1980s
Corresponding Author(s) : Sifiso Mxolisi Ndlovu
Afrika Zamani,
No. 17 (2009): Afrika Zamani: An Annual Journal of African History: Special Issue on Re-reading the History and Historiography of Domination and Resistance in Africa
Abstract
Controlling South Africa during the Cold War era was geostrategic to the West- ern super powers because of its 1,900-mile coastline with harbours at Durban, East London, Port Elizabeth, Cape Town and Walvis Bay (a seaport in the then South West Africa, now Namibia). Being the southernmost country on the Af- rican continent, South Africa abuts on both the Indian and the Atlantic Oceans and its fascist leaders vociferously pledged to ‘defend the free world from the communist threat’ during the Cold War era. Thus, apartheid South Africa played a vital role in the global strategy of imperialism led by Western super powers such as the United States of America and United Kingdom to make the Indian Ocean area a region for their dominance and total control. South Africa was thus regarded as a ‘second Gibraltar’ or ‘gatekeeper’ to the Indian and Atlantic Oceans. This article is about imperial interventions in the African continent spearheaded by Western super powers, and the pivotal role of apartheid South Africa in this regard. It also discusses the actions of African countries whose leaders acted in solidarity with the apartheid regime which had divisive for- eign policy. But those African leaders who acted in solidarity with the racist South African government represented a minority group vigorously opposed by a majority of Organisation of African Unity member states and the African National Congress (ANC).
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- Abul-Enein, M., 2012, ‘Egypt in the Anti-apartheid Struggle and Support for the South African Liberation Movements’, in SADET, The Road to Democracy in South Africa, African Solidarity, Volume 5, Pretoria: UNISA Press, chapter 9.
- Aburish, S.K., 2004, Nasser: The Last Arab, London: Gerald Duckworth.
- Africa Contemporary Record, 1971/72, ‘Dialogue with South Africa: Tanzania – Why We Will Not Negotiate’, Vol. 4, C 71-7.
- Africa Report, 1981, ‘Interview with O.R. Tambo’, September-October, pp. 22 and 40.
- Albright, D., 1994, South Africa’s Secret Nuclear Weapons, Washington: Institute for Science and International Security.
- Anderson, D., 2006, Histories of the Hanged: Britain’s Dirty War in Kenya and the End of the Empire, London: Phoenix.
- Banda, H.K., 1971, ‘Report on his Visit to South Africa’, Africa Research Bulletin, Political Series, Vol. 8, No. 8.
- Bernstein, R., 1999, Memory Against Forgetting, Sandton: Penguin.
- Biney, A., 2012, ‘Ghana’s Contribution to the Anti-apartheid Struggle; 1958-1994’, in SADET, The Road to Democracy in South Africa, African Solidarity, Volume 5, chapter 2, Pretoria: UNISA Press.
- Bonner, P., 1993, ‘The Shaping of Apartheid: Contradictions, Continuity and Popular Struggle’, in P. Bonner, P. Delius and D. Posel, eds., Apartheid’s Genesis, 1935-1962, Johannesburg: Ravan.
- Bowman, L., 1990, ‘The Strategic Importance of South Africa to the United States: An Appraisal and Policy Analysis’, in S. Chan, ed., Exporting Apartheid: Foreign Policies in Southern Africa, 1978-1988, London: Macmillan, pp. 266-305.
- Brown, B., 1979, ‘South Africa’s Foreign Policy towards its Black Neighbours’, unpublished PhD thesis, Boston University.
- Bunting, B., 1971, ‘South Africa’s ""Outward-looking Policy""’, Sechaba, Vol. 5, No. 10, pp. 6-9.
- Bunting, B., 1986, The Rise of the South African Reich, London: IDAF.
- Clough, M.S., 1988, Mau Mau Memoirs: History, Memory and Politics, London: Lynne Rienner.
- Coker, C., 1990, ‘South Africa and the Western Alliance, 1949-88: A History of Illusions’, in S. Chan, ed., Exporting Apartheid: Foreign Policies in Southern Africa, 1978- 1988, London: Macmillan, pp. 249-65.
- Chirwa, C., 2012, ‘Zambia and Developments in the South African Liberation Struggle’, in SADET, The Road to Democracy in South Africa, African Solidarity, Volume 5, chapter 8, Pretoria: UNISA Press.
- Crocker, C., 1980, ‘South Africa: Strategy for Change’, Foreign Affairs, Winter, p. 346.
- Crocker, C., 1981, ‘The United States and Africa’, Africa Report, September-October, pp. 6-8.
- Crocker, C., Greznes, M. and Herderson, R., 1981, ‘A US Policy for the 80s’, Africa Report, January-February, pp. 7-14. Country Files, Foreign Affairs Archives, Ivory Coast, 1/179/3.
- Davies, J.E., 2007, Constructive Engagement? Chester Crocker and American Policy in South Africa, Namibia and Angola, Oxford: James Currey.
- Defence, Department of (DD), 1949, Military Intelligence Archives, MV/EF, Vol. 1, ‘Discussions between UK, US and Union Governments’, Regional Defence of Africa, 22 March.
- Defence, Department of (DD), 1950, Military Intelligence Archives, MV/EF, Vol. 1, letter from J. Erasmus to L. Johnson, 15 June.
- Defence, Department of (DD), 1950, Military Intelligence Archives, MV/EF, Vol. 1, letter from E. Shinwell to J.E. Erasmus, 5 July.
- Defence, Department of (DD), 1951, Military Intelligence Archives, Memorandum by the UK Chief of Staff, ‘Defence Negotiations with Egypt’, enclosure to MEDO, Paper No. 2, June.
- Defence, Department of (DD), Military Intelligence Archives, MV/EF, Vol. 2, ‘Nairobi Conference’, Report to the Department of External Affairs on the African Defence Facilities Conference, Nairobi, 20-31 August.
- Defence, Department of (DD), 1953, Military Intelligence Archives, ‘Defence Negotiations with Egypt’, letter from Hamilton to du Toit, 8 January.
- Defence, Department of (DD), Military Intelligence Archives, MV-B, Vol. 2, section 216, ‘Special Political Report: The Political Attack on the RSA’.
- Defence, Department of (DD), Military Intelligence Archives, MV-B, Vol. 2, section 216, ‘UK Political Anti-Apartheid Movement (AAM) National Committee Meeting’.
- Defence, Department of (DD), 1965, Military Intelligence Archives, MV-B, Vol. 2, section 216, ‘Relations between South Africa and the United States: Summarised Balance Sheet’, 21 January.
- El-Khawas, M. and Cohen, B., eds, 1976, National Security Memorandum 39: The Kissinger Study of Southern Africa [secret], Westport: Lawrence Hill & Co.
- Foreign Affairs, Department of (DFA), PM137/6, ‘Atomic Energy Matters: Suggested Admission of South Africa to ""Tripartite Ring""’.
- ‘Globalism or Regionalism? United States Policy towards Southern Africa’ Adelphi Papers, No. 154, 1979/80.
- Furlong, P., 1991, Between Crown and Swastika: The Impact of the Radical Right on the Afrikaner Nationalist Movement in the Fascist Era, Johannesburg: Wits University Press.
- Gumede, J.T., 1982, ‘Have Seen the New Jerusalem’ Sechaba, December, pp. 20-7.
- Gurney, C., 2008, ‘The Heart of the Beast: The British Anti-Apartheid Movement, 1959- 1994’, in SADET, Road to Democracy in South Africa, Volume 3, International Solidarity, Part 1, Pretoria, UNISA Press, chapter 4, pp. 255-352.
- Hounam, P. and McQuillan, S., 1995, The Mini-Nuke Conspiracy: Mandela’s Nuclear Nightmare, London: Faber & Faber.
- Houphouët-Boigny, president’s press conference, Radio Abidjan, 28 April 1971, Africa Contemporary Record, Vol. 4, 1971/72, C 71-7.
- Jackson, H.F., 1970, ‘Reagan’s Policy Rupture’, Africa Report, September-October, pp. 9-13.
- Jeune Afrique, 1970, No. 515, 11, November.
- Johns, D.H., 1977, ‘The Foreign Policy of Tanzania’, in O. Aluko, ed., The Foreign Policies of African States, Kent: Hodder and Stoughton.
- Karis, T., 1986/7, ‘South African Liberation: The Communist Factor’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 65, pp. 267-87.
- Legum, C., 1972, ‘Dialogue: Africa’s Great Debate’, Africa Contemporary Record: Special Issues Series, London: Rex Collings.
- Lerumo, A., 1987, Fifty Fighting Years: The Communist Party of South Africa, 1921- 1971, London: Inkululeko Publications.
- Lusaka Manifesto on Southern Africa: Joint Statement by Thirteen Governments, April 1969, in Africa Contemporary Record, 1969/70, C 41.
- Marder, M. and Oberdorfer, D., 1977, ‘How the West, Soviets Acted to Defuse South African: A-Test’, Washington Post, 28 August.
- Military Intelligence, Department of (DMI), KG/GPW/7/5/1, Vol. 1, SAM/2377/G, 30 June 1950.
- Military Intelligence, Department of (DMI), KG/GPW/7/5/1, Vol. 1, SAM/2377/1/G/114. Military Intelligence, Department of (DMI), KG/GPW/7/5/1, Vol. 1, SAM/2377/G/106. Military Intelligence, Department of (DMI), KG/GPW/7/5/1, Vol. 1, SAM/2377/G/106,
- enclosed letter, Hirsch to du Toit, 30 June 1950.
- Military Intelligence, Department of (DMI), KG/GPW/7/5/1, Vol. 1, ‘The Emergency in Kenya’.
- Military Intelligence, Department of (DMI), KG/GPW/7/5/1, Vol. 1, confidential letter J.K. Christie to D. Forsyth, 13 March 1953.
- Military Intelligence, Department of (DMI), KG/GPW/7/5/1, Vol. 1, SAM/2377/1/G/39. Military Intelligence, Department of (DMI), KG/GPW/7/5/1, Vol. 1, ‘Veiligheidskeuring: Jack Gathercole’, Report of the Commissioner of the SAP, 20 March 1953.
- Minter, W. and Hill, S., 2008, ‘Anti-Apartheid Solidarity in United States-South African Relations: From the Margins to the Mainstream’, in SADET, Road to Democracy in South Africa, Volume 3, International Solidarity, Part 2, Pretoria, UNISA Press, Chapter 9, pp. 745-823.
- Ndlovu, S.M., 2000, ‘Johannes Nkosi and the Communist Party of South Africa: Images of ""Blood River"" and King Dingane in the Late 1920s-1930’, History and Theory, Vol. 39, December, pp. 111-132.
- Ndlovu, S.M., 2006, ‘The ANC’s Diplomacy and International Relations’, in SADET, The Road to Democracy in South Africa, 1970-1980, Volume 2, Pretoria, UNISA Press, Chapter 12, pp. 615-68.
- Ndlovu, S.M., ‘The African National Congress and Negotiations’, in SADET, The Road to Democracy in South Africa, 1980-1990, Part 1, Volume 4, Pretoria, UNISA Press, 2010, Chapter 2, pp. 63-132.
- Ndlovu, S.M., (forthcoming, 2012), ‘The Geopolitics of Apartheid South Africa in the African Continent:1948-1994’, in SADET, The Road to Democracy in South Africa, African Solidarity, Volume 5, Pretoria, UNISA Press, Chapter 1.
- Nolutshungu, S., 1975, South Africa in Africa: A Study of Ideology and Foreign Policy, Manchester: Manchester University Press.
- Nyerere, Julius, 1963, ‘Address by the President of Tanganyika, H.E. Julius Nyerere to the Summit of Heads of State and Government of the OAU’, Addis Ababa, 24 May.
- Pfister, R., 2003, ‘Apartheid South Africa’s Foreign Relations with African States, 1961- 1994’, PhD Thesis, Rhodes University.
- Political Africa, 1971, ‘Busia States Case for Dialogue with South Africa’, Vol. 11, No. 1, January.
- Purkitt, H., 1995, ‘The Politics of Denuclearization: The Case of South Africa’, Paper presented at the Defence Nuclear Agency’s Fourth Annual International Conference on Controlling Arms, Philadelphia, 21 June.
- Purkitt, H. and Burgess, S., 2005, South Africa’s Weapons of Mass Destruction, Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
- Rand Daily Mail, 2 and 4 April 1968.
- Reifer, T., 2002, ‘Globalisation and the National Security State Corporate Complex (NSSCC) in the Long Twentieth Century’, in Grosfoguel, R. and Cervantes- Rodriguez, A., The Modern/Colonial/Capitalist World System in the Twentieth Century: Global Process, Antisystemic Movements, and the Geopolitics of Knowledge, Westport, Praeger Publishers, Chapter 1.
- Rich, P., 1990, ‘US Containment Policy, South Africa and the Apartheid Dilemma’, in S. Chan, ed., Exporting Apartheid: Foreign Policies in Southern Africa, 1978-1988, London: Macmillan, pp. 306-28.
- Sechaba, 1983, ‘Koeberg – Powerhouse for War’, February, p. 20. Sechaba, 1983, September, pp. 16-17.
- Sharma, D.N., 1969, Afro-Asian Group in the UN, Allahabad: Chaitanya Publishing House.
- Shubin, V., 2008, ‘There is No Threat from the Eastern Bloc’, in SADET, Road to Democracy in South Africa, Volume 3, International Solidarity, Part 2, Pretoria, UNISA Press, Chapter 12, pp. 985-1067.
- South African Parliamentary House of Assembly Debates, 22 April 1971, Columns 4976-7.
- Tarimo E., and N. Reuben, (forthcoming 2012), ‘Tanzania’s solidarity with South Africa’s Liberation’, in SADET, The Road to Democracy in South Africa, African Solidarity, Volume 5, Pretoria, UNISA Press, Chapter 6.
- Tarimo E., and N. Reuben, (forthcoming 2012), ‘The role of the OAU Liberation Committee in the South African liberation struggle’, in SADET, The Road to Democracy in South Africa, African Solidarity, Volume 5, Pretoria, UNISA Press, Chapter 7.
- The Star, 10 August 1968.
- The Star, 11 May, 1982, ‘Reagan Ties with South Africa are Growing’.
- United States Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986, Sub-section 102 (b) 4.
- United States Department of State, ‘Communist Influence in South Africa’, written to comply with Presidential Order No. 12571 of 27 October 1986, under direction of the Secretary of State, 1987.
- University of Fort Hare (UFH), ANC Archives, O.R. Tambo Papers, Folder A17.1.4, Box 17, ‘Statement of the President of the ANC, Oliver Tambo, to the Council of Foreign Relations’: New York, 8 November 1982.
- Venter, A.J., 2008, How South Africa Built Six Atom Bombs: And Then Abandoned its Nuclear Weapons Program, Johannesburg: Ashanti Publishing.
- Weiyun, Z. and Sujiang, X., ‘China’s Support for and Solidarity with South Africa’s Liberation Struggle’, in SADET, Road to Democracy in South Africa, Volume 3, International Solidarity, Part 2, Pretoria, UNISA Press, chapter 15, pp. 1213-53.
- Wheeler, T., ed., 2005, History of the South African Department of Foreign Affairs, 1927-1993, Johannesburg: South African Institute of International Affairs.
References
Abul-Enein, M., 2012, ‘Egypt in the Anti-apartheid Struggle and Support for the South African Liberation Movements’, in SADET, The Road to Democracy in South Africa, African Solidarity, Volume 5, Pretoria: UNISA Press, chapter 9.
Aburish, S.K., 2004, Nasser: The Last Arab, London: Gerald Duckworth.
Africa Contemporary Record, 1971/72, ‘Dialogue with South Africa: Tanzania – Why We Will Not Negotiate’, Vol. 4, C 71-7.
Africa Report, 1981, ‘Interview with O.R. Tambo’, September-October, pp. 22 and 40.
Albright, D., 1994, South Africa’s Secret Nuclear Weapons, Washington: Institute for Science and International Security.
Anderson, D., 2006, Histories of the Hanged: Britain’s Dirty War in Kenya and the End of the Empire, London: Phoenix.
Banda, H.K., 1971, ‘Report on his Visit to South Africa’, Africa Research Bulletin, Political Series, Vol. 8, No. 8.
Bernstein, R., 1999, Memory Against Forgetting, Sandton: Penguin.
Biney, A., 2012, ‘Ghana’s Contribution to the Anti-apartheid Struggle; 1958-1994’, in SADET, The Road to Democracy in South Africa, African Solidarity, Volume 5, chapter 2, Pretoria: UNISA Press.
Bonner, P., 1993, ‘The Shaping of Apartheid: Contradictions, Continuity and Popular Struggle’, in P. Bonner, P. Delius and D. Posel, eds., Apartheid’s Genesis, 1935-1962, Johannesburg: Ravan.
Bowman, L., 1990, ‘The Strategic Importance of South Africa to the United States: An Appraisal and Policy Analysis’, in S. Chan, ed., Exporting Apartheid: Foreign Policies in Southern Africa, 1978-1988, London: Macmillan, pp. 266-305.
Brown, B., 1979, ‘South Africa’s Foreign Policy towards its Black Neighbours’, unpublished PhD thesis, Boston University.
Bunting, B., 1971, ‘South Africa’s ""Outward-looking Policy""’, Sechaba, Vol. 5, No. 10, pp. 6-9.
Bunting, B., 1986, The Rise of the South African Reich, London: IDAF.
Clough, M.S., 1988, Mau Mau Memoirs: History, Memory and Politics, London: Lynne Rienner.
Coker, C., 1990, ‘South Africa and the Western Alliance, 1949-88: A History of Illusions’, in S. Chan, ed., Exporting Apartheid: Foreign Policies in Southern Africa, 1978- 1988, London: Macmillan, pp. 249-65.
Chirwa, C., 2012, ‘Zambia and Developments in the South African Liberation Struggle’, in SADET, The Road to Democracy in South Africa, African Solidarity, Volume 5, chapter 8, Pretoria: UNISA Press.
Crocker, C., 1980, ‘South Africa: Strategy for Change’, Foreign Affairs, Winter, p. 346.
Crocker, C., 1981, ‘The United States and Africa’, Africa Report, September-October, pp. 6-8.
Crocker, C., Greznes, M. and Herderson, R., 1981, ‘A US Policy for the 80s’, Africa Report, January-February, pp. 7-14. Country Files, Foreign Affairs Archives, Ivory Coast, 1/179/3.
Davies, J.E., 2007, Constructive Engagement? Chester Crocker and American Policy in South Africa, Namibia and Angola, Oxford: James Currey.
Defence, Department of (DD), 1949, Military Intelligence Archives, MV/EF, Vol. 1, ‘Discussions between UK, US and Union Governments’, Regional Defence of Africa, 22 March.
Defence, Department of (DD), 1950, Military Intelligence Archives, MV/EF, Vol. 1, letter from J. Erasmus to L. Johnson, 15 June.
Defence, Department of (DD), 1950, Military Intelligence Archives, MV/EF, Vol. 1, letter from E. Shinwell to J.E. Erasmus, 5 July.
Defence, Department of (DD), 1951, Military Intelligence Archives, Memorandum by the UK Chief of Staff, ‘Defence Negotiations with Egypt’, enclosure to MEDO, Paper No. 2, June.
Defence, Department of (DD), Military Intelligence Archives, MV/EF, Vol. 2, ‘Nairobi Conference’, Report to the Department of External Affairs on the African Defence Facilities Conference, Nairobi, 20-31 August.
Defence, Department of (DD), 1953, Military Intelligence Archives, ‘Defence Negotiations with Egypt’, letter from Hamilton to du Toit, 8 January.
Defence, Department of (DD), Military Intelligence Archives, MV-B, Vol. 2, section 216, ‘Special Political Report: The Political Attack on the RSA’.
Defence, Department of (DD), Military Intelligence Archives, MV-B, Vol. 2, section 216, ‘UK Political Anti-Apartheid Movement (AAM) National Committee Meeting’.
Defence, Department of (DD), 1965, Military Intelligence Archives, MV-B, Vol. 2, section 216, ‘Relations between South Africa and the United States: Summarised Balance Sheet’, 21 January.
El-Khawas, M. and Cohen, B., eds, 1976, National Security Memorandum 39: The Kissinger Study of Southern Africa [secret], Westport: Lawrence Hill & Co.
Foreign Affairs, Department of (DFA), PM137/6, ‘Atomic Energy Matters: Suggested Admission of South Africa to ""Tripartite Ring""’.
‘Globalism or Regionalism? United States Policy towards Southern Africa’ Adelphi Papers, No. 154, 1979/80.
Furlong, P., 1991, Between Crown and Swastika: The Impact of the Radical Right on the Afrikaner Nationalist Movement in the Fascist Era, Johannesburg: Wits University Press.
Gumede, J.T., 1982, ‘Have Seen the New Jerusalem’ Sechaba, December, pp. 20-7.
Gurney, C., 2008, ‘The Heart of the Beast: The British Anti-Apartheid Movement, 1959- 1994’, in SADET, Road to Democracy in South Africa, Volume 3, International Solidarity, Part 1, Pretoria, UNISA Press, chapter 4, pp. 255-352.
Hounam, P. and McQuillan, S., 1995, The Mini-Nuke Conspiracy: Mandela’s Nuclear Nightmare, London: Faber & Faber.
Houphouët-Boigny, president’s press conference, Radio Abidjan, 28 April 1971, Africa Contemporary Record, Vol. 4, 1971/72, C 71-7.
Jackson, H.F., 1970, ‘Reagan’s Policy Rupture’, Africa Report, September-October, pp. 9-13.
Jeune Afrique, 1970, No. 515, 11, November.
Johns, D.H., 1977, ‘The Foreign Policy of Tanzania’, in O. Aluko, ed., The Foreign Policies of African States, Kent: Hodder and Stoughton.
Karis, T., 1986/7, ‘South African Liberation: The Communist Factor’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 65, pp. 267-87.
Legum, C., 1972, ‘Dialogue: Africa’s Great Debate’, Africa Contemporary Record: Special Issues Series, London: Rex Collings.
Lerumo, A., 1987, Fifty Fighting Years: The Communist Party of South Africa, 1921- 1971, London: Inkululeko Publications.
Lusaka Manifesto on Southern Africa: Joint Statement by Thirteen Governments, April 1969, in Africa Contemporary Record, 1969/70, C 41.
Marder, M. and Oberdorfer, D., 1977, ‘How the West, Soviets Acted to Defuse South African: A-Test’, Washington Post, 28 August.
Military Intelligence, Department of (DMI), KG/GPW/7/5/1, Vol. 1, SAM/2377/G, 30 June 1950.
Military Intelligence, Department of (DMI), KG/GPW/7/5/1, Vol. 1, SAM/2377/1/G/114. Military Intelligence, Department of (DMI), KG/GPW/7/5/1, Vol. 1, SAM/2377/G/106. Military Intelligence, Department of (DMI), KG/GPW/7/5/1, Vol. 1, SAM/2377/G/106,
enclosed letter, Hirsch to du Toit, 30 June 1950.
Military Intelligence, Department of (DMI), KG/GPW/7/5/1, Vol. 1, ‘The Emergency in Kenya’.
Military Intelligence, Department of (DMI), KG/GPW/7/5/1, Vol. 1, confidential letter J.K. Christie to D. Forsyth, 13 March 1953.
Military Intelligence, Department of (DMI), KG/GPW/7/5/1, Vol. 1, SAM/2377/1/G/39. Military Intelligence, Department of (DMI), KG/GPW/7/5/1, Vol. 1, ‘Veiligheidskeuring: Jack Gathercole’, Report of the Commissioner of the SAP, 20 March 1953.
Minter, W. and Hill, S., 2008, ‘Anti-Apartheid Solidarity in United States-South African Relations: From the Margins to the Mainstream’, in SADET, Road to Democracy in South Africa, Volume 3, International Solidarity, Part 2, Pretoria, UNISA Press, Chapter 9, pp. 745-823.
Ndlovu, S.M., 2000, ‘Johannes Nkosi and the Communist Party of South Africa: Images of ""Blood River"" and King Dingane in the Late 1920s-1930’, History and Theory, Vol. 39, December, pp. 111-132.
Ndlovu, S.M., 2006, ‘The ANC’s Diplomacy and International Relations’, in SADET, The Road to Democracy in South Africa, 1970-1980, Volume 2, Pretoria, UNISA Press, Chapter 12, pp. 615-68.
Ndlovu, S.M., ‘The African National Congress and Negotiations’, in SADET, The Road to Democracy in South Africa, 1980-1990, Part 1, Volume 4, Pretoria, UNISA Press, 2010, Chapter 2, pp. 63-132.
Ndlovu, S.M., (forthcoming, 2012), ‘The Geopolitics of Apartheid South Africa in the African Continent:1948-1994’, in SADET, The Road to Democracy in South Africa, African Solidarity, Volume 5, Pretoria, UNISA Press, Chapter 1.
Nolutshungu, S., 1975, South Africa in Africa: A Study of Ideology and Foreign Policy, Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Nyerere, Julius, 1963, ‘Address by the President of Tanganyika, H.E. Julius Nyerere to the Summit of Heads of State and Government of the OAU’, Addis Ababa, 24 May.
Pfister, R., 2003, ‘Apartheid South Africa’s Foreign Relations with African States, 1961- 1994’, PhD Thesis, Rhodes University.
Political Africa, 1971, ‘Busia States Case for Dialogue with South Africa’, Vol. 11, No. 1, January.
Purkitt, H., 1995, ‘The Politics of Denuclearization: The Case of South Africa’, Paper presented at the Defence Nuclear Agency’s Fourth Annual International Conference on Controlling Arms, Philadelphia, 21 June.
Purkitt, H. and Burgess, S., 2005, South Africa’s Weapons of Mass Destruction, Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Rand Daily Mail, 2 and 4 April 1968.
Reifer, T., 2002, ‘Globalisation and the National Security State Corporate Complex (NSSCC) in the Long Twentieth Century’, in Grosfoguel, R. and Cervantes- Rodriguez, A., The Modern/Colonial/Capitalist World System in the Twentieth Century: Global Process, Antisystemic Movements, and the Geopolitics of Knowledge, Westport, Praeger Publishers, Chapter 1.
Rich, P., 1990, ‘US Containment Policy, South Africa and the Apartheid Dilemma’, in S. Chan, ed., Exporting Apartheid: Foreign Policies in Southern Africa, 1978-1988, London: Macmillan, pp. 306-28.
Sechaba, 1983, ‘Koeberg – Powerhouse for War’, February, p. 20. Sechaba, 1983, September, pp. 16-17.
Sharma, D.N., 1969, Afro-Asian Group in the UN, Allahabad: Chaitanya Publishing House.
Shubin, V., 2008, ‘There is No Threat from the Eastern Bloc’, in SADET, Road to Democracy in South Africa, Volume 3, International Solidarity, Part 2, Pretoria, UNISA Press, Chapter 12, pp. 985-1067.
South African Parliamentary House of Assembly Debates, 22 April 1971, Columns 4976-7.
Tarimo E., and N. Reuben, (forthcoming 2012), ‘Tanzania’s solidarity with South Africa’s Liberation’, in SADET, The Road to Democracy in South Africa, African Solidarity, Volume 5, Pretoria, UNISA Press, Chapter 6.
Tarimo E., and N. Reuben, (forthcoming 2012), ‘The role of the OAU Liberation Committee in the South African liberation struggle’, in SADET, The Road to Democracy in South Africa, African Solidarity, Volume 5, Pretoria, UNISA Press, Chapter 7.
The Star, 10 August 1968.
The Star, 11 May, 1982, ‘Reagan Ties with South Africa are Growing’.
United States Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986, Sub-section 102 (b) 4.
United States Department of State, ‘Communist Influence in South Africa’, written to comply with Presidential Order No. 12571 of 27 October 1986, under direction of the Secretary of State, 1987.
University of Fort Hare (UFH), ANC Archives, O.R. Tambo Papers, Folder A17.1.4, Box 17, ‘Statement of the President of the ANC, Oliver Tambo, to the Council of Foreign Relations’: New York, 8 November 1982.
Venter, A.J., 2008, How South Africa Built Six Atom Bombs: And Then Abandoned its Nuclear Weapons Program, Johannesburg: Ashanti Publishing.
Weiyun, Z. and Sujiang, X., ‘China’s Support for and Solidarity with South Africa’s Liberation Struggle’, in SADET, Road to Democracy in South Africa, Volume 3, International Solidarity, Part 2, Pretoria, UNISA Press, chapter 15, pp. 1213-53.
Wheeler, T., ed., 2005, History of the South African Department of Foreign Affairs, 1927-1993, Johannesburg: South African Institute of International Affairs.