2 - Use of the Term ‘Empire’ in Historical Research on Africa: A Comparative Approach
Corresponding Author(s) : Michal Tymowski
Afrika Zamani,
No. 11-12 (2004): Afrika Zamani: An Annual Journal of African History
Abstract
This paper explores the use of the term ‘empire’ in historical research on Africa to illustrate the problem of ‘comparability’ and the requirement for measure- ment and appropriateness of the ‘measurement language’. Taking the reader through a review of the literature, beginning with Maurice Delafosse's populari- sation of the concept in his essays on ancient Ghana, Mali and Songhai in 1912 and climaxing with pointers in the multi-volume UNESCO General History of Africa in the late twentieth century, the author exposes the essential inconsist- ency in African and Africanist use of the term, ‘empire’, which inevitably crept into the study of African history in the heydays of ‘conceptual Eurocentrism’. He maintains that the usage of the term ‘empire’ in African historiography was employed due to the need to name those African states which were extensive territorially and multi-ethnically; and states designated ‘empires’ were charac- terised by certain elements of an imperial organisation rather than by a fully formed imperial system. And for analogues and comparisons, the form of de- pendence between the centre and the subordinated tribes and early states that developed in Africa reminds us rather of the relations existing on the other con- tinents in the early stages of large state formation. Hence, the term ‘early em- pire’ seems more justified to describe these states in research on the history of Africa. The author calls for the need to conduct discussion, with the help of a comparative method, on the specific features of those ‘early empires’.
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- Akinjogbin, I.A., 1966, ‘The Oyo Empire in the Eighteenth Century’, Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria.
- Ba, A.H. & Daget, J., 1962, L'empire Peul du Macina, vol. I (1818-1853), Paris.
- Bartnicki, A. & Mantel-Niecko, J., 1978, Geschichte Athiopiens von den Anfangen bis zur Gegenwart, t.1-2, Berlin.
- Béraud-Villars, J., 1942, L’'empire' de Gao, un état soudanais au XVe et au XVIe siècles, Paris.
- Boulnois, J., & Hama, Boubou, 1954, L’ empire de Gao. Histoire, coutumes et magie des Songhai, Paris.
- Chrétien, J.P., 1985, ‘L’empire de Bacwezi; la construction d'un imaginaire géopolitique’, Annales ESC, pp. 1335-1377: ‘“empire” ou constellation clanique?’ (p. 1341).
- Cissoko, S.M., 1975, Tombouctou et l’empire Songhay, Dakar-Abidjan.
- Conrad, G.W., Demarest, A.A., 1984, Religion and Empire. The Dynamics of Aztec and Inca Expansion, Cambridge.
- Delafosse, M., 1972, Haut-Sénégal-Niger, Paris 1912 (Second edition), t. II, L'Histoire, pp. 427-428.
- Dieterlen, G., Sylla, Diarra, 1922, L'empire de Ghana. Le Wagadou et les traditions de Yéréré, Paris.
- Doyle, M.W., 1986, Empires, Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
- Eisenstadt, S.N., 1963, The Political Systems of 'empires', New York: Vintage.
- Eisenstadt, S.N., 1968, 'Empire', in D. L. Sills, ed., International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, New York, vol. 5, pp. 41- 49.
- Jones, A.H. and Monroe, E. 1965, A History of Ethiopia, Oxford.
- Kaplan, S., 1988, 'Christianity and Early State in Ethiopia', in S.N. Eisenstadt et al eds., The Early State in African Perspective, pp. 148-167.
- Kesteloot, L., ed., 1978, ''Le mythe et l'histoire dans la formation de l''empire' de Segou'', Bulletin IFAN, vol 40, 3, pp. 578-678.
- Khazaniv, A.M., 1993, ‘Muhammad and Jengiz Khan Compared: The Religious Factor in World 'empire' Building’, Comparative Studies in Society and His- tory, t.35, pp. 461-471; 'empires', pp. 279-282.
- Kobišcanov, J.M., 1963, Obšcestviennyie otnošenia v Aksumskom carstve, Afrikanskii Etnograficeskii Sbornik, V.
- Law, R., 1977, The Oyo Empire c. 1600-c. 1836. A West African Imperialism in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade, Oxford: Clarendon
- Levtzion, N., 1988, 'Islam and State Formation in West Africa', in S.N. Eisenstadt et al., eds., The Early State in African Perspective, Leiden pp. 98-108.
- Ly Tall, Madina, 1977, Contribution à l'histoire de l'empire du Mali (XIIIe-XVIe siècles), Dakar-Abidjan.
- Mair, L., 1977, African Kingdoms, Oxford: Clarendon, pp. 74-78.
- Mann, M., 1986, The Sources of Social Power, 1: A History of Power to A.D. 1760, Cambridge.
- Margarido, A., 1970, 'La capitale de l’empire de Lunda, un urbanisme politique', Annales ESC.
- Monteil, C., 1929, ‘Les empires du Mali’, Bulletin CHSAOF. Monteil, V., 1972, L'Islam noir, Paris: Seuil.
- Oloruntimehin, O., 1972, The Segu Tuculor Empire, London: Longman. Pankhurst, S., 1955, Ethiopia. A Cultural History, London: Lalibela House. Polanyi, K., ed., 1957, Trade and Markets in the Early 'Empires', Glencoe: The Free Press.
- Randles, W.G., 1975, L’ Empire du Monomotapa du XVe au XIXe siècle, Paris.
- Saint-Martin, Y.J., 1970, L’empire Toucouleur 1848-1897, Paris: Le livre africain.
- Steinhard, E.I., 1981, ‘From Empire to State: the Emergence of the Kingdom of Bunyoro-Kitara c. 1350-1890’, in The Study, op cit., pp. 353-370.
- Tamrat, Tadesse, 1972, Church and State in Ethiopia 1270-1527, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Tapar, R., 2001, 'Empires'. in Perspectives from Archaeology and History, S.E. Alcock et al. (eds.), Cambridge, pp. 195-200.
- Thapar, R., 1981, 'The State as Empire', in J.H.M. Claessen, P. Skalnik (eds.), The Study of the State, The Hague, pp. 409-426.
- Thornton, J.K., 1983, 'Catholicism in Kongo 1491-1750', Journal of African History, vol. 25, pp.147-167.
- Trimingham, J.S., 1962, A History of Islam in West Africa, Glasgow: Glasgow University Press.
- Trimingham, J.S., 1968, The Influence of Islam upon Africa, London: Longman. Tymowski, M., Le territoire et les frontières du Songhay à la fin du XVe et au XVIe siècle - le problème du centre et de territoires périphériques d'un grand Etat de l'Afrique occidentale, UNESCO, forthcoming.
- UNESCO, 1984, General History of Africa, vol. IV, Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, D.T. Niane (ed.), UNESCO.
- UNESCO, 1988, General History of Africa, vol. III, Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century, M. El Fasi, I. Hrbek, eds, UNESCO.
- UNESCO, 1989, General History of Africa, vol. VI, Africa in the Nineteenth Century until the 1880s, J.F. Ade Ajayi (ed.), UNESCO.
- UNESCO, 1992, General History of Africa, vol. V, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, B.A. Ogot, ed., UNESCO.
- Urvoy, Y., 1949, Histoire de l'Empire de Bornou, Dakar: IFAN.
- Vansina, J., 1962, 'A Comparison of African Kingdoms', Africa, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 324-35.
- Wilson, A., 1972, 'Long-distance Trade and the Luba Lomami Empire', Journal of African History, vol 13, no. 4, pp. 575-589.
References
Akinjogbin, I.A., 1966, ‘The Oyo Empire in the Eighteenth Century’, Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria.
Ba, A.H. & Daget, J., 1962, L'empire Peul du Macina, vol. I (1818-1853), Paris.
Bartnicki, A. & Mantel-Niecko, J., 1978, Geschichte Athiopiens von den Anfangen bis zur Gegenwart, t.1-2, Berlin.
Béraud-Villars, J., 1942, L’'empire' de Gao, un état soudanais au XVe et au XVIe siècles, Paris.
Boulnois, J., & Hama, Boubou, 1954, L’ empire de Gao. Histoire, coutumes et magie des Songhai, Paris.
Chrétien, J.P., 1985, ‘L’empire de Bacwezi; la construction d'un imaginaire géopolitique’, Annales ESC, pp. 1335-1377: ‘“empire” ou constellation clanique?’ (p. 1341).
Cissoko, S.M., 1975, Tombouctou et l’empire Songhay, Dakar-Abidjan.
Conrad, G.W., Demarest, A.A., 1984, Religion and Empire. The Dynamics of Aztec and Inca Expansion, Cambridge.
Delafosse, M., 1972, Haut-Sénégal-Niger, Paris 1912 (Second edition), t. II, L'Histoire, pp. 427-428.
Dieterlen, G., Sylla, Diarra, 1922, L'empire de Ghana. Le Wagadou et les traditions de Yéréré, Paris.
Doyle, M.W., 1986, Empires, Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Eisenstadt, S.N., 1963, The Political Systems of 'empires', New York: Vintage.
Eisenstadt, S.N., 1968, 'Empire', in D. L. Sills, ed., International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, New York, vol. 5, pp. 41- 49.
Jones, A.H. and Monroe, E. 1965, A History of Ethiopia, Oxford.
Kaplan, S., 1988, 'Christianity and Early State in Ethiopia', in S.N. Eisenstadt et al eds., The Early State in African Perspective, pp. 148-167.
Kesteloot, L., ed., 1978, ''Le mythe et l'histoire dans la formation de l''empire' de Segou'', Bulletin IFAN, vol 40, 3, pp. 578-678.
Khazaniv, A.M., 1993, ‘Muhammad and Jengiz Khan Compared: The Religious Factor in World 'empire' Building’, Comparative Studies in Society and His- tory, t.35, pp. 461-471; 'empires', pp. 279-282.
Kobišcanov, J.M., 1963, Obšcestviennyie otnošenia v Aksumskom carstve, Afrikanskii Etnograficeskii Sbornik, V.
Law, R., 1977, The Oyo Empire c. 1600-c. 1836. A West African Imperialism in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade, Oxford: Clarendon
Levtzion, N., 1988, 'Islam and State Formation in West Africa', in S.N. Eisenstadt et al., eds., The Early State in African Perspective, Leiden pp. 98-108.
Ly Tall, Madina, 1977, Contribution à l'histoire de l'empire du Mali (XIIIe-XVIe siècles), Dakar-Abidjan.
Mair, L., 1977, African Kingdoms, Oxford: Clarendon, pp. 74-78.
Mann, M., 1986, The Sources of Social Power, 1: A History of Power to A.D. 1760, Cambridge.
Margarido, A., 1970, 'La capitale de l’empire de Lunda, un urbanisme politique', Annales ESC.
Monteil, C., 1929, ‘Les empires du Mali’, Bulletin CHSAOF. Monteil, V., 1972, L'Islam noir, Paris: Seuil.
Oloruntimehin, O., 1972, The Segu Tuculor Empire, London: Longman. Pankhurst, S., 1955, Ethiopia. A Cultural History, London: Lalibela House. Polanyi, K., ed., 1957, Trade and Markets in the Early 'Empires', Glencoe: The Free Press.
Randles, W.G., 1975, L’ Empire du Monomotapa du XVe au XIXe siècle, Paris.
Saint-Martin, Y.J., 1970, L’empire Toucouleur 1848-1897, Paris: Le livre africain.
Steinhard, E.I., 1981, ‘From Empire to State: the Emergence of the Kingdom of Bunyoro-Kitara c. 1350-1890’, in The Study, op cit., pp. 353-370.
Tamrat, Tadesse, 1972, Church and State in Ethiopia 1270-1527, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Tapar, R., 2001, 'Empires'. in Perspectives from Archaeology and History, S.E. Alcock et al. (eds.), Cambridge, pp. 195-200.
Thapar, R., 1981, 'The State as Empire', in J.H.M. Claessen, P. Skalnik (eds.), The Study of the State, The Hague, pp. 409-426.
Thornton, J.K., 1983, 'Catholicism in Kongo 1491-1750', Journal of African History, vol. 25, pp.147-167.
Trimingham, J.S., 1962, A History of Islam in West Africa, Glasgow: Glasgow University Press.
Trimingham, J.S., 1968, The Influence of Islam upon Africa, London: Longman. Tymowski, M., Le territoire et les frontières du Songhay à la fin du XVe et au XVIe siècle - le problème du centre et de territoires périphériques d'un grand Etat de l'Afrique occidentale, UNESCO, forthcoming.
UNESCO, 1984, General History of Africa, vol. IV, Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, D.T. Niane (ed.), UNESCO.
UNESCO, 1988, General History of Africa, vol. III, Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century, M. El Fasi, I. Hrbek, eds, UNESCO.
UNESCO, 1989, General History of Africa, vol. VI, Africa in the Nineteenth Century until the 1880s, J.F. Ade Ajayi (ed.), UNESCO.
UNESCO, 1992, General History of Africa, vol. V, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, B.A. Ogot, ed., UNESCO.
Urvoy, Y., 1949, Histoire de l'Empire de Bornou, Dakar: IFAN.
Vansina, J., 1962, 'A Comparison of African Kingdoms', Africa, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 324-35.
Wilson, A., 1972, 'Long-distance Trade and the Luba Lomami Empire', Journal of African History, vol 13, no. 4, pp. 575-589.