2 - African Diaspora and the Search for Academic Freedom Safe Havens: Outline of a Research Agenda
Corresponding Author(s) : Nelson Casimiro Zavale
Journal of Higher Education in Africa,
Vol. 16 No. 1-2 (2018): Journal of Higher Education in Africa: Special Issue on Scholars on the Move: Reclaiming the African Diaspora to Support African Higher Education
Abstract
This article examines assumptions concerning the extent to which being in exile influences academics’ possibilities to exercise academic freedom, particularly when articulating views on African political and social issues that might be inconvenient to the established political authorities. Two main questions are addressed. First, do African academics need to be in diaspora to exercise their academic freedom, including freedom of expression and free speech, particularly beyond the walls of the university and its consecrated freedom of teaching and research? Second, do factors such as disciplinary background, country of origin, reasons for migrating from Africa and period of living in exile influence the propensity of academics in diaspora to publicly express their views on political and social issues in their home countries? The article begins by conceptualising the African diaspora, African academic diaspora, academic freedom and ‘extramural’ academic freedom.
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- Altbach, P., 2007, ‘Academic Freedom in a Global Context: 21st Century Challenges’, The NEA 2007 Almanac of Higher Education, pp. 50–56.
- Ashby, E., and Anderson, M., 1966, ‘Autonomy and Academic Freedom in Britain and in English Speaking Countries of Tropical Africa’, Minerva, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 317–364.
- Baubock, R., and Faist, T., eds, 2010, Diaspora and Transnationalism: Concepts, Theories and Methods, IMICOE Research, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
- Bubtana, A., ed., 2006, Problems and Challenges in Arab and African Countries, Proceedings of the Academic Freedom Conference held in Alexandria, Egypt, 10–11 September 2005.
- Buker, W.E., Bal, R., and Hendriks, R., 2009, The Paradox of Scientific Authority: The Role of Scientific Advice in Democracies, London and Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
- Butler, K.D., 2000, ‘From Black History to Diasporan History: Brazilian Abolition in Afro-Atlantic Context’, African Studies Review, Vol. 43, No. 1, pp. 125–139.
- Coleman, J., 1977, ‘Academic Freedom and Responsibilities of Foreign Scholars in African Universities’, Journal of Opinion, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 14–32.
- Diouf, M., and Mamdani, M., eds, 1994, Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA. Dufoix, S., 2008, Diasporas, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
- Faist, T., 2010, ‘Diaspora and Transnationalism: What Kind of Dance Partners?’ in R. Baubock and T. Faist, eds, Diaspora and Transnationalism: Concepts, Theories and Methods, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. pp. 9–34.
- Falola, T., 2001, Nationalism and African Intellectuals, Rochester: University of Rochester Press.
- Gibbons, M., Limoges, C., Nowotny, H., Schwartzman, S., Scott, P., and Trow, 1994, The New Production of Knowledge: The Dynamics of Science and Research in Contemporary Societies, London: Sage.
- Goldstein, S., 1976, ‘Academic Freedom: Its Meaning and Underlying Premises as Seen through the American Experience’, Israel Law Review, Vol. 11, No. 52, pp. 52–75.
- Gray, J., ed., 2008, John Stuart Mill: On Liberty and Other Essays, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Human Rights Watch, 1991, Academic Freedom and Human Rights Abuses, New York, Washington and London: African Watch.
- Kerr, D., and Mapanje, J., 2002, ‘Academic Freedom and the University of Malawi’, African Studies Review, Vol. 45, No. 2, pp. 73–91.
- Lyotard, J-F., 1992, The Postmodern Explained, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
- Maasen, S., and Weingart, P., 2005, ‘What Is New in Scientific Advice to Politics? Introductory Essay’, in S. Maasen and P. Weingart, eds, Democratization of Expertise? Exploring Novel Forms of Scientific Advice in Political Decision-Making, Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 1–20.
- Macamo, E., 2005, ‘Against “Development”’, Codesria Bulletin, Nos 3&4, pp. 5–7.
- Mamdani, M., 1993, ‘University crisis and reform: A reflection on the African experience’, Review of African Political Economy, 20:58, 7-19, DOI: 10.1080/03056249308704016
- Mamdani, M., 2007, Scholars in the Marketplace: The Dilemmas of Neoliberal Reform at Makerere University 1989–2005, Dakar: CODESRIA.
- Marfouk, A., 2006, ‘Emigration, stopper l’hémorragie, L’état de l’Afrique’, Jeune Afrique, 24 Octobre. Available online at http://www.abdeslammarfouk.com/uploads/1/6/3/4/16347570/extrait_etat_afrique_2006.pdf
- Mazrui, A., 1975, ‘Academic Freedom in Africa: The Dual Tyranny’, African Affairs, Vol. 75, No. 297, pp. 393–400.
- Mazrui, A., 2003, ‘Towards Re-Africanizing African Universities: Who Killed Intellectualism in the Post-Colonial Era?’ Alternatives, Turkish Journal of International Relations, Vol. 2, Nos 3&4, pp. 135–163.
- Mazrui, A., and Mutunga, W., eds, 2003, Governance and Leadership: Debating the African Condition, Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.
- Mbiba, B., 2012, ‘Zimbabwean Diaspora Politics in Britain: Insights from the Cathedral Moment’, Common Wealth and Comparative Politics, Vol. 50, No. 2, pp. 226–252.
- Mkandawire, T., 1995, ‘Three Generations of African Academics: A Note’, Transformation, Vol. 28, pp. 75–83.
- Mkandawire, T., 2005, ‘African Intellectuals and Nationalism’, in T. Mkandawire, ed., African Intellectuals: Rethinking Politics, Language, Gender and Development, London and New York: Zed Books and CODESRIA. pp. 10–55.
- Mkandawire, T., 2010, ‘From Maladjusted States to Democratic Developmental States in Africa’, in O. Edigheji, ed., Constructing a Democratic Developmental State in South Africa: Potentials and Challenges, Cape Town: HSRC Press. pp. 59–81.
- Mwakikagile, G., 2006, Africa Is a Mess: What Went Wrong and What Should Be Done? Pretoria: New Africa Press.
- Nesbitt, F.N., 2002, ‘African Intellectuals in the Belly of the Beast: Migration, Identity and the Politics of Exile’, African Issues, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 70–75.
- Ogachi, I.O., 2011, ‘Neo-liberalism and the Subversion of Academic Freedom from within: Money, Corporate Cultures and “Captured” Intellectuals in African Public Universities’, JHEA/RESA, CODESRIA, Vol. 9, Nos 1&2, pp. 25–47.
- Ogachi, I.O., 2015, ‘Engaging the African Academic Diaspora: How Ready Are Universities in Africa?’ International Journal of African Higher Education, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 25–53. Owen, D., and Strong, T.B., 2004, Max Weber: The Vocation Lectures, trans. Rodney
- Livingstone, Indianapolis: Hackett.
- Palmer, C., 2000, ‘The African Diaspora’, Black Scholar, Vol. 30, Nos 3&4, pp. 56–59.
- Sekayi, D.N., 1997, African American Intellectual-Activist: Legacies in the Struggle, New York and London: Routledge.
- Teferra, D., 2004, ‘Brain Circulation: Unparalleled Opportunities, Underlying Challenges and Outmoded Presumptions’, Paper prepared for the Symposium on International Labour and Academic Mobility: Emerging Trends and Implications for Public Policy, 21–22 October, World Education Services, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
- Turner, S., and Kleist, N., 2013, ‘Introduction: Agents of Change? Staging and Governing Diasporas and the African State’, African Studies, Vol. 72, No. 2, pp. 192–206.
- wa Thiong’o, N., 1996, ‘The Allegory of the Cave: Language, Democracy and New World Order’, Black Renaissance/ Renaissance Noire, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 1–18.
- Weingart, P., 1999, ‘Paradoxes: Scientific Expertise and Political Accountability: Paradoxes of Science in Politics’, Science and Public Policy, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 151–161.
- Zeleza, P., 1998, ‘African Labour and Intellectual Migration to the North: Building New Transatlantic Bridges’, Symposium on African and African-American Intellectuals, Santiago, CA, University of California.
- Zeleza, P., 2004, ‘The African Academic Diaspora in the United States and Africa: The Challenge of Productive Engagement’, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and Middle East, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 261–275.
- Zeleza, P., 2005, ‘Rewriting the African Diaspora: Beyond the Black Atlantic’, African Affairs, Vol. 164, No. 414, pp. 35–68.
- Zeleza, P., 2013, Engagement between African Diaspora Academics in the U.S. and Canada and the African Institutions of Higher Education: Perspectives from the North America and Africa, Report for the Carnegie Corporation of New York.
References
Altbach, P., 2007, ‘Academic Freedom in a Global Context: 21st Century Challenges’, The NEA 2007 Almanac of Higher Education, pp. 50–56.
Ashby, E., and Anderson, M., 1966, ‘Autonomy and Academic Freedom in Britain and in English Speaking Countries of Tropical Africa’, Minerva, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 317–364.
Baubock, R., and Faist, T., eds, 2010, Diaspora and Transnationalism: Concepts, Theories and Methods, IMICOE Research, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
Bubtana, A., ed., 2006, Problems and Challenges in Arab and African Countries, Proceedings of the Academic Freedom Conference held in Alexandria, Egypt, 10–11 September 2005.
Buker, W.E., Bal, R., and Hendriks, R., 2009, The Paradox of Scientific Authority: The Role of Scientific Advice in Democracies, London and Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Butler, K.D., 2000, ‘From Black History to Diasporan History: Brazilian Abolition in Afro-Atlantic Context’, African Studies Review, Vol. 43, No. 1, pp. 125–139.
Coleman, J., 1977, ‘Academic Freedom and Responsibilities of Foreign Scholars in African Universities’, Journal of Opinion, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 14–32.
Diouf, M., and Mamdani, M., eds, 1994, Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA. Dufoix, S., 2008, Diasporas, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Faist, T., 2010, ‘Diaspora and Transnationalism: What Kind of Dance Partners?’ in R. Baubock and T. Faist, eds, Diaspora and Transnationalism: Concepts, Theories and Methods, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. pp. 9–34.
Falola, T., 2001, Nationalism and African Intellectuals, Rochester: University of Rochester Press.
Gibbons, M., Limoges, C., Nowotny, H., Schwartzman, S., Scott, P., and Trow, 1994, The New Production of Knowledge: The Dynamics of Science and Research in Contemporary Societies, London: Sage.
Goldstein, S., 1976, ‘Academic Freedom: Its Meaning and Underlying Premises as Seen through the American Experience’, Israel Law Review, Vol. 11, No. 52, pp. 52–75.
Gray, J., ed., 2008, John Stuart Mill: On Liberty and Other Essays, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Human Rights Watch, 1991, Academic Freedom and Human Rights Abuses, New York, Washington and London: African Watch.
Kerr, D., and Mapanje, J., 2002, ‘Academic Freedom and the University of Malawi’, African Studies Review, Vol. 45, No. 2, pp. 73–91.
Lyotard, J-F., 1992, The Postmodern Explained, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
Maasen, S., and Weingart, P., 2005, ‘What Is New in Scientific Advice to Politics? Introductory Essay’, in S. Maasen and P. Weingart, eds, Democratization of Expertise? Exploring Novel Forms of Scientific Advice in Political Decision-Making, Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 1–20.
Macamo, E., 2005, ‘Against “Development”’, Codesria Bulletin, Nos 3&4, pp. 5–7.
Mamdani, M., 1993, ‘University crisis and reform: A reflection on the African experience’, Review of African Political Economy, 20:58, 7-19, DOI: 10.1080/03056249308704016
Mamdani, M., 2007, Scholars in the Marketplace: The Dilemmas of Neoliberal Reform at Makerere University 1989–2005, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Marfouk, A., 2006, ‘Emigration, stopper l’hémorragie, L’état de l’Afrique’, Jeune Afrique, 24 Octobre. Available online at http://www.abdeslammarfouk.com/uploads/1/6/3/4/16347570/extrait_etat_afrique_2006.pdf
Mazrui, A., 1975, ‘Academic Freedom in Africa: The Dual Tyranny’, African Affairs, Vol. 75, No. 297, pp. 393–400.
Mazrui, A., 2003, ‘Towards Re-Africanizing African Universities: Who Killed Intellectualism in the Post-Colonial Era?’ Alternatives, Turkish Journal of International Relations, Vol. 2, Nos 3&4, pp. 135–163.
Mazrui, A., and Mutunga, W., eds, 2003, Governance and Leadership: Debating the African Condition, Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.
Mbiba, B., 2012, ‘Zimbabwean Diaspora Politics in Britain: Insights from the Cathedral Moment’, Common Wealth and Comparative Politics, Vol. 50, No. 2, pp. 226–252.
Mkandawire, T., 1995, ‘Three Generations of African Academics: A Note’, Transformation, Vol. 28, pp. 75–83.
Mkandawire, T., 2005, ‘African Intellectuals and Nationalism’, in T. Mkandawire, ed., African Intellectuals: Rethinking Politics, Language, Gender and Development, London and New York: Zed Books and CODESRIA. pp. 10–55.
Mkandawire, T., 2010, ‘From Maladjusted States to Democratic Developmental States in Africa’, in O. Edigheji, ed., Constructing a Democratic Developmental State in South Africa: Potentials and Challenges, Cape Town: HSRC Press. pp. 59–81.
Mwakikagile, G., 2006, Africa Is a Mess: What Went Wrong and What Should Be Done? Pretoria: New Africa Press.
Nesbitt, F.N., 2002, ‘African Intellectuals in the Belly of the Beast: Migration, Identity and the Politics of Exile’, African Issues, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 70–75.
Ogachi, I.O., 2011, ‘Neo-liberalism and the Subversion of Academic Freedom from within: Money, Corporate Cultures and “Captured” Intellectuals in African Public Universities’, JHEA/RESA, CODESRIA, Vol. 9, Nos 1&2, pp. 25–47.
Ogachi, I.O., 2015, ‘Engaging the African Academic Diaspora: How Ready Are Universities in Africa?’ International Journal of African Higher Education, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 25–53. Owen, D., and Strong, T.B., 2004, Max Weber: The Vocation Lectures, trans. Rodney
Livingstone, Indianapolis: Hackett.
Palmer, C., 2000, ‘The African Diaspora’, Black Scholar, Vol. 30, Nos 3&4, pp. 56–59.
Sekayi, D.N., 1997, African American Intellectual-Activist: Legacies in the Struggle, New York and London: Routledge.
Teferra, D., 2004, ‘Brain Circulation: Unparalleled Opportunities, Underlying Challenges and Outmoded Presumptions’, Paper prepared for the Symposium on International Labour and Academic Mobility: Emerging Trends and Implications for Public Policy, 21–22 October, World Education Services, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Turner, S., and Kleist, N., 2013, ‘Introduction: Agents of Change? Staging and Governing Diasporas and the African State’, African Studies, Vol. 72, No. 2, pp. 192–206.
wa Thiong’o, N., 1996, ‘The Allegory of the Cave: Language, Democracy and New World Order’, Black Renaissance/ Renaissance Noire, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 1–18.
Weingart, P., 1999, ‘Paradoxes: Scientific Expertise and Political Accountability: Paradoxes of Science in Politics’, Science and Public Policy, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 151–161.
Zeleza, P., 1998, ‘African Labour and Intellectual Migration to the North: Building New Transatlantic Bridges’, Symposium on African and African-American Intellectuals, Santiago, CA, University of California.
Zeleza, P., 2004, ‘The African Academic Diaspora in the United States and Africa: The Challenge of Productive Engagement’, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and Middle East, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 261–275.
Zeleza, P., 2005, ‘Rewriting the African Diaspora: Beyond the Black Atlantic’, African Affairs, Vol. 164, No. 414, pp. 35–68.
Zeleza, P., 2013, Engagement between African Diaspora Academics in the U.S. and Canada and the African Institutions of Higher Education: Perspectives from the North America and Africa, Report for the Carnegie Corporation of New York.