1 - Introduction: Student Activism, Structural Adjustment and the Democratic Transition in Africa
Journal of Higher Education in Africa,
Vol. 6 No. 2-3 (2008): Journal of Higher Education in Africa
Abstract
University students in the period following independence were a transitory social group, who held well-founded expectations of rewarding and high-status employ- ment after graduation. In the 1970s many of these assurances began to erode as countries that had attempted to implement state-led development faced interna- tional recession and internal corruption and decay. State funding of higher educa- tion by the late 1970s was being targeted for restructuring by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Student activism was affected: while stu- dents clung onto a self-conscious elitism, the reality of student poverty and the financial crises of African universities transformed their activism. As well as see- ing their status as a privileged group collapse, there was an unprecedented ‘con- vergence of forces’ between students and the popular classes. This introduction surveys the role of students, the nature of their protest and their relationship with civil society in the processes that brought about a wave of multi-party elections and democratic struggles in Africa. The article critically intervenes in some of the most important debates on the role of student activism on the continent and intro- duces the contributions in this special issue devoted to student activism.
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- Abrahamsen, R., 2000, Disciplining Democracy: Development Discourse and Good Governance in Africa, London: Zed Books.
- Alexander, A and Renton, D., 2002, ‘Globalisation, imperialism and popular re- sistance in Egypt, 1880-2000’ in Zeilig, L (ed.) Class Struggle and Resistance in Africa, Cheltenham: New Clarion Press.
- Afriques en Lutte, 2007, ‘Togo: Normalisation électorale bénie par l’UE’, November.
- Federici, S., Caffentzis, G. and Alidou, O., 2000, A Thousand Flowers. Social Strug- gles Against Structural Adjustment in African Universities, New York: Africa World Press.
- Bako, S., 1994, ‘Education and Adjustment in Nigeria’ in M. Diouf & M. Mamdani, eds., Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
- Barkan, J.D., 1975, An African Dilemma: University Students, Development And Politics in Ghana, Tanzania and Uganda, Nairobi: Oxford University Press.
- Bathily, A., Diouf, M. and Mbodj, M., 1995, ‘The Senegalese Student Movement from its Inception to 1989’ in M. Mamdani and E. Wamba-Dia-Wamba, eds.,African Studies in Social Movements and Democracy, Dakar: CODESRIA.
- Bathily, A., 1992, Mai 68 à Dakar ou la Révolte Universitaire et la Démocratie, Paris: Chaka.
- Bensaïd, D, 2006, ‘This movement is directly based on a social question’ Socialist Worker 25 March Bianchini, P., 2002, ‘Le Mouvement étudiant sénégalais. Un essai d’interprétation’ in Diop, MC La Société Sénéglaise entre le local et le global, Paris: Karthala. Bloom, D. 2001, Opening address presented to the conference, ‘Globalisation and Higher Education: Views from the South.’ Education Policy Unit, University of the Western Cape. (http://www.tfhe.net/resources/Cape_town .htm).
- Bond, P., 2002. Against Global Apartheid: South Africa Meets the World Bank, IMF and International Finance, Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press.
- Boyer, D., 2002, ‘The African Crisis in Context: Comparative Encounters with Educational Rationalization’, African Studies Review, Vol. 45, No. 2, pp. 205- 218.
- Boren, M.E., 2001, Student Resistance: A History of the Unruly Subject, New York: Routledge. Brenner, L., 2001, Controlling Knowledge: Religion, Power and Schooling in a West African Muslim Society, Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
- Builtenhuijs, R. and Thiriot, C., 1995, Démocratisation en Afrique au Sud du Sa- hara 1992-1995 Talence-Cédex: Centre d’Étude d’Afrique Noire.
- Caffentzis, G., 2000, ‘The World Bank and Education in Africa’ in O. Alidou, G. Caffentzis and S. Federici, eds., A Thousand Flowers. Social Struggles Against Structural Adjustment in African Universities, Trenton, Asmara: Africa World Press.
- Clouet, E., 2007, La Prostitution Etudiante a l’heure de Nouvelle Technologies de Communication, Paris: Max Milo Editions.
- Committee for Academic Freedom in Africa, Autumn 1991, University of South Maine.
- Committee for Academic Freedom in Africa, Autumn 1996, University of South Maine.
- Diouf, M. and Mamdani, M., 1994, Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
- Dwyer, P. and Seddon, D., 2002, ‘The New Wave? A Global Perspective on Popular Protest’. Paper presented at the 8th International Conference on Alternative Fu- tures and Popular Protest 2–4 April 2002. Manchester Metropolitan University. Étudier au Senegal: Guide de l’Enseignement
- Supérieur et Professionnel, Pamphlet, 2003, Dakar: Senco 5.
- Federici, S., 2000, ‘The New Student Movement’ in O. Alidou, G. Caffentzis, and S. Federici, eds., A Thousand Flowers. Social Struggles Against Structural Adjustment in African Universities, New York: Africa World Press.
- Gwisai, M., 2002, Revolutionaries, Resistance and Crisis in Zimbabwe: Anti-Neo-liberal Struggles in Periphery Capitalism, Harare: I.S.O. Pamphlet.
- Hanna, W.J. and Hanna, J.L., eds., 1975, University Students and African Poli- tics, New York-London: Africana Publishing Company.
- Hanna W.J., 1975, ‘Students, Universities and Political Outcomes’ in W.J. Hanna and J.L. Hanna, eds., University Students and African Politics, London: Africana Publishing Company.
- Hanna, W.J., and Hanna, J.L., 1975, ‘Students as Elites’ in W.J. Hanna and J.L. Hanna, eds., University Students and African Politics, London: Africana Pub- lishing Company.
- Harrison, G., 2002, Issues in the Contemporary Politics of Sub-Saharan Africa: the Dynamics of Struggle and Resistance, New York: Palgrave.
- Hosni, D., 2000, Higher Education in Developing Countries: Peril and Promise: the Task Force on Higher Education and Society, Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
- Hutchful, E., 1991, ‘Eastern Europe: Consequences for Africa’, Review of African Political Economy, Vol. 18, No. 50, pp. 51-59.
- Imam, A. and Mama, A., 1994, ‘The Role of Academics in Limiting and Expand- ing Academic Freedom’ in M. Diouf and M. Mamdani, eds., Academic Free- dom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
- Jeune Afrique, 1991, ‘Le Bon Mauvais Example’, 29 March - 2 April.
- Kelly, M., 1991, Education in a Declining Economy: The Case of Zambia, 1975- 1985, Washington, DC: World Bank.
- Kerr, D. and Mapanje, J., 2002, ‘Academic Freedom and the University of Ma- lawi’, African Studies Review, Vol. 45, No. 2, pp. 73-92.
- Klein, N., 2000, No Logo: No Space, No Choice, No Jobs: Taking Aim at the Brand Bullies, London: Flamingo.
- Konings, P., 2002, ‘University Students’ Revolt, Ethnic Militia, and Violence dur- ing Political Liberalization in Cameroon’, African Studies Review, Vol. 45, No. 2, pp. 179-204.
- Lebeau, Y., 1997, Étudiants et Campus du Nigéria: Recomposition du champ Universitaire et Sociabilités étudiantes, Paris: Karthala.
- Maier, K., 2000, This House Has Fallen, London: Penguin.
- Mamdani, M., 1994, ‘The Intelligentsia, the State and Social Movements in Africa’ in M. Diouf and M. Mamdani, eds., Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
- Mamdani, M. and Wamba-dia-Wamba, E., 1995, eds., African Studies in Social Movements and Democracy, Dakar: CODESRIA.
- Marfleet, P., 1998, ‘Globalisation and the Third World’, International Socialism Journal, Vol. 2, No. 81, pp. 91-130.
- Mario, M. and Fry, P., 2003, Higher Education in Mozambique: A Case Study, Oxford: James Currey.
- Martins, L., 2002, Kabila et la Révolution Congolaise, Panafricanisme ou Neocolonialisme? Tome 1, Anvers: Editions EPO.
- Mazrui, A., 1994, ‘The Impact of Global Changes on Academic Freedom in Af- rica: A Preliminary Assessment’ in M. Diouf and M. Mamdani, eds., Aca- demic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
- Mills, D., 2004, ‘The “New” African Higher Education?’, African Affairs, Vol. 103, No. 413, pp. 667-675.
- Mkude, D., Cooksey, B. and Levey, L., 2003, Higher Education in Tanzania: A Case Study, Oxford: James Currey.
- Le Monde, 2007, ‘Université : le pari de la promité’, 21 November.
- Munikengi, T.T. and Sangol, W., 2004, ‘The Diploma Paradox: University of Kin- shasa between Crisis and Salvation’ in T. Trefon, ed., Reinventing Order in the Congo, London: Zed Books.
- Musisi, N.B. and Nansozi, K.M., 2003, Makerere University in Transition: 1993- 2000, Oxford: James Currey.
- Ngugi, wa Thiong’o, 1987, Decolonising the Mind, Harare: Zimbabwe Publishing House.
- Nkomo, M.O., 1984, Student Culture and Activism in Black South African Univer- sities: the Roots of Resistance, Westport, Connecticut-London: Greenwood Press.
- Nkongolo, M.N., 2000, Le Campus Martyr, Paris: L’Harmattan.
- Nyamnjoh, F.B. and Jua, N.B., 2002, ‘African Universities in Crisis and the Pro- motion of a Democratic Culture: The Political Economy of Violence in Afri- can Educational Systems’, African Studies Review, Vol. 45, No. 2, pp. 1–26.
- Nyamnjoh, F. B., 2007, ‘Africa in the new Millennium: Interrogating Barbie De- mocracy’, Pambazuka News: Weekly Forum for Social Justice in Africa. (http://www.pambazuka.org/).
- Nzongola-Ntalaja, G., 2002, A People’s History of the Congo, London: Zed Books. O’Brien, D.C., 1996, ‘A Lost Generation? Youth Identity and State Decay in West Africa’ in R. P. Werbner and T. O.
- Ranger, eds., Post-colonial Identities in Africa, London: Zed Books.
- Renton, D., Seddon, D. and Zeilig, L., 2006, The Congo: Plunder and Resistance 1880-2005, London: Zed Books.
- Richards, P., 1996, Fighting for the Rain Forest: War, Youth And Resources in Si- erra Leone, London: International African Institute in association with James Currey.
- Richards, P., 2002, ‘Youth, Food and Peace: a reflection on Some African Security Issues at the Millennium’ in T. Zack-Williams, D. Frost, A. Thomson, eds., Africa in Crisis, London: Pluto Press.
- Riley, S. and Parfitt, T., 1994, ‘Economic Adjustment and Democratization in Africa’ in J. Walton and D. Seddon, eds., Free Markets and Food Riots: The Politics of Global Adjustment, Oxford: Blackwell.
- Rouge, 2007, ‘Amplifier la mobilisation’, 29 November.
- Sandbrook, R., 1993, The Politics of Africa’s Economic Recovery, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Sandbrook, R., 2000, Closing the Circle: Democratisation and Development in Africa, London: Zed
- Books.
- Saul, J., 2001, Millennial Africa: Capitalism, Socialism, Democracy, New Jersey: Africa World Press.
- Saul, J., 2003, ‘Africa: The Next Liberation Struggle’, Review of African Politi- cal Economy, Vol. 30, No. 96, pp. 187-202.
- Seddon, D., 2002, ‘Popular Protest and Class Struggle in Africa: An Historical Overview’ in L. Zeilig, ed., Class Struggle and Resistance in Africa, Chelten- ham: New Clarion Press.
- Seddon, D. and Zeilig, L., 2005, ‘Class and Protest in Africa: New Waves’, Review of African Political Economy, Vol. 31, No. 103, pp. 9-27.
- Smith, Z.K., 1997, ‘From Demons to Democrats: Mali’s Student Movement 1991- 1996’, Review of African Political Economy, Vol. 24, No. 72, pp. 249-263.
- Socialist Worker, 2006, ‘Daniel Bensaid: This Movement is Directly Based on the Social Question’, April 4.
- Teferra, D. and Altbach, P., eds., 2003, African Higher Education: An Interna- tional Reference Handbook, Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
- Tengende, N, 1994, Workers, Students and the Struggles for Democracy: State- Civil Society Relations in Zimbabwe, unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Roskilde Uni- versity, Denmark.
- Thompson, E.P. , 1991, The Making of the English Working Class, London: Pen- guin.
- Verspoor, A., 2001, A Chance to Learn: Knowledge and Finance for Education in Sub-Saharan Africa, Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
- Walton, J. and Seddon, D., 1994, Free Markets and Food Riots: the Politics of Global Adjustment, Oxford: Blackwell.
- World Bank, 1981, Accelerated Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, Washing- ton, D.C.: World Bank.
- World Bank, 1988, Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Policies for Adjustment, Revitalization, and Expansion, Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
- World Bank, 1992, Revitalisation de l’Enseignement Supérieur: Les Enjeux de la Réforme, Dakar: Départment du Sahel, Bureau régional de la Banque mondiale. World Bank, 2000, Higher Education in Developing Countries: Peril and Promise, Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
- Zack-Williams, T., Frost, D. and Thomson, A., 2002, eds., Africa in Crisis: New Challenges and Possibilities, London: Pluto Press.
- Zeilig, L. and Seddon, D. 2002, ‘Marxism, Class and Resistance in Africa’ in L. Zeilig, ed., Class Struggle and Resistance in Africa, Cheltenham: New Clarion Press.
- Zeilig, L. and Ansell, N. 2008, ‘Spaces and Scales of African Student Activism: Senegalese and Zimbabwean University Students at the Intersection of Campus, Nation and Globe’, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp.31-54.
References
Abrahamsen, R., 2000, Disciplining Democracy: Development Discourse and Good Governance in Africa, London: Zed Books.
Alexander, A and Renton, D., 2002, ‘Globalisation, imperialism and popular re- sistance in Egypt, 1880-2000’ in Zeilig, L (ed.) Class Struggle and Resistance in Africa, Cheltenham: New Clarion Press.
Afriques en Lutte, 2007, ‘Togo: Normalisation électorale bénie par l’UE’, November.
Federici, S., Caffentzis, G. and Alidou, O., 2000, A Thousand Flowers. Social Strug- gles Against Structural Adjustment in African Universities, New York: Africa World Press.
Bako, S., 1994, ‘Education and Adjustment in Nigeria’ in M. Diouf & M. Mamdani, eds., Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Barkan, J.D., 1975, An African Dilemma: University Students, Development And Politics in Ghana, Tanzania and Uganda, Nairobi: Oxford University Press.
Bathily, A., Diouf, M. and Mbodj, M., 1995, ‘The Senegalese Student Movement from its Inception to 1989’ in M. Mamdani and E. Wamba-Dia-Wamba, eds.,African Studies in Social Movements and Democracy, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Bathily, A., 1992, Mai 68 à Dakar ou la Révolte Universitaire et la Démocratie, Paris: Chaka.
Bensaïd, D, 2006, ‘This movement is directly based on a social question’ Socialist Worker 25 March Bianchini, P., 2002, ‘Le Mouvement étudiant sénégalais. Un essai d’interprétation’ in Diop, MC La Société Sénéglaise entre le local et le global, Paris: Karthala. Bloom, D. 2001, Opening address presented to the conference, ‘Globalisation and Higher Education: Views from the South.’ Education Policy Unit, University of the Western Cape. (http://www.tfhe.net/resources/Cape_town .htm).
Bond, P., 2002. Against Global Apartheid: South Africa Meets the World Bank, IMF and International Finance, Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press.
Boyer, D., 2002, ‘The African Crisis in Context: Comparative Encounters with Educational Rationalization’, African Studies Review, Vol. 45, No. 2, pp. 205- 218.
Boren, M.E., 2001, Student Resistance: A History of the Unruly Subject, New York: Routledge. Brenner, L., 2001, Controlling Knowledge: Religion, Power and Schooling in a West African Muslim Society, Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Builtenhuijs, R. and Thiriot, C., 1995, Démocratisation en Afrique au Sud du Sa- hara 1992-1995 Talence-Cédex: Centre d’Étude d’Afrique Noire.
Caffentzis, G., 2000, ‘The World Bank and Education in Africa’ in O. Alidou, G. Caffentzis and S. Federici, eds., A Thousand Flowers. Social Struggles Against Structural Adjustment in African Universities, Trenton, Asmara: Africa World Press.
Clouet, E., 2007, La Prostitution Etudiante a l’heure de Nouvelle Technologies de Communication, Paris: Max Milo Editions.
Committee for Academic Freedom in Africa, Autumn 1991, University of South Maine.
Committee for Academic Freedom in Africa, Autumn 1996, University of South Maine.
Diouf, M. and Mamdani, M., 1994, Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Dwyer, P. and Seddon, D., 2002, ‘The New Wave? A Global Perspective on Popular Protest’. Paper presented at the 8th International Conference on Alternative Fu- tures and Popular Protest 2–4 April 2002. Manchester Metropolitan University. Étudier au Senegal: Guide de l’Enseignement
Supérieur et Professionnel, Pamphlet, 2003, Dakar: Senco 5.
Federici, S., 2000, ‘The New Student Movement’ in O. Alidou, G. Caffentzis, and S. Federici, eds., A Thousand Flowers. Social Struggles Against Structural Adjustment in African Universities, New York: Africa World Press.
Gwisai, M., 2002, Revolutionaries, Resistance and Crisis in Zimbabwe: Anti-Neo-liberal Struggles in Periphery Capitalism, Harare: I.S.O. Pamphlet.
Hanna, W.J. and Hanna, J.L., eds., 1975, University Students and African Poli- tics, New York-London: Africana Publishing Company.
Hanna W.J., 1975, ‘Students, Universities and Political Outcomes’ in W.J. Hanna and J.L. Hanna, eds., University Students and African Politics, London: Africana Publishing Company.
Hanna, W.J., and Hanna, J.L., 1975, ‘Students as Elites’ in W.J. Hanna and J.L. Hanna, eds., University Students and African Politics, London: Africana Pub- lishing Company.
Harrison, G., 2002, Issues in the Contemporary Politics of Sub-Saharan Africa: the Dynamics of Struggle and Resistance, New York: Palgrave.
Hosni, D., 2000, Higher Education in Developing Countries: Peril and Promise: the Task Force on Higher Education and Society, Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
Hutchful, E., 1991, ‘Eastern Europe: Consequences for Africa’, Review of African Political Economy, Vol. 18, No. 50, pp. 51-59.
Imam, A. and Mama, A., 1994, ‘The Role of Academics in Limiting and Expand- ing Academic Freedom’ in M. Diouf and M. Mamdani, eds., Academic Free- dom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Jeune Afrique, 1991, ‘Le Bon Mauvais Example’, 29 March - 2 April.
Kelly, M., 1991, Education in a Declining Economy: The Case of Zambia, 1975- 1985, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Kerr, D. and Mapanje, J., 2002, ‘Academic Freedom and the University of Ma- lawi’, African Studies Review, Vol. 45, No. 2, pp. 73-92.
Klein, N., 2000, No Logo: No Space, No Choice, No Jobs: Taking Aim at the Brand Bullies, London: Flamingo.
Konings, P., 2002, ‘University Students’ Revolt, Ethnic Militia, and Violence dur- ing Political Liberalization in Cameroon’, African Studies Review, Vol. 45, No. 2, pp. 179-204.
Lebeau, Y., 1997, Étudiants et Campus du Nigéria: Recomposition du champ Universitaire et Sociabilités étudiantes, Paris: Karthala.
Maier, K., 2000, This House Has Fallen, London: Penguin.
Mamdani, M., 1994, ‘The Intelligentsia, the State and Social Movements in Africa’ in M. Diouf and M. Mamdani, eds., Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Mamdani, M. and Wamba-dia-Wamba, E., 1995, eds., African Studies in Social Movements and Democracy, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Marfleet, P., 1998, ‘Globalisation and the Third World’, International Socialism Journal, Vol. 2, No. 81, pp. 91-130.
Mario, M. and Fry, P., 2003, Higher Education in Mozambique: A Case Study, Oxford: James Currey.
Martins, L., 2002, Kabila et la Révolution Congolaise, Panafricanisme ou Neocolonialisme? Tome 1, Anvers: Editions EPO.
Mazrui, A., 1994, ‘The Impact of Global Changes on Academic Freedom in Af- rica: A Preliminary Assessment’ in M. Diouf and M. Mamdani, eds., Aca- demic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Mills, D., 2004, ‘The “New” African Higher Education?’, African Affairs, Vol. 103, No. 413, pp. 667-675.
Mkude, D., Cooksey, B. and Levey, L., 2003, Higher Education in Tanzania: A Case Study, Oxford: James Currey.
Le Monde, 2007, ‘Université : le pari de la promité’, 21 November.
Munikengi, T.T. and Sangol, W., 2004, ‘The Diploma Paradox: University of Kin- shasa between Crisis and Salvation’ in T. Trefon, ed., Reinventing Order in the Congo, London: Zed Books.
Musisi, N.B. and Nansozi, K.M., 2003, Makerere University in Transition: 1993- 2000, Oxford: James Currey.
Ngugi, wa Thiong’o, 1987, Decolonising the Mind, Harare: Zimbabwe Publishing House.
Nkomo, M.O., 1984, Student Culture and Activism in Black South African Univer- sities: the Roots of Resistance, Westport, Connecticut-London: Greenwood Press.
Nkongolo, M.N., 2000, Le Campus Martyr, Paris: L’Harmattan.
Nyamnjoh, F.B. and Jua, N.B., 2002, ‘African Universities in Crisis and the Pro- motion of a Democratic Culture: The Political Economy of Violence in Afri- can Educational Systems’, African Studies Review, Vol. 45, No. 2, pp. 1–26.
Nyamnjoh, F. B., 2007, ‘Africa in the new Millennium: Interrogating Barbie De- mocracy’, Pambazuka News: Weekly Forum for Social Justice in Africa. (http://www.pambazuka.org/).
Nzongola-Ntalaja, G., 2002, A People’s History of the Congo, London: Zed Books. O’Brien, D.C., 1996, ‘A Lost Generation? Youth Identity and State Decay in West Africa’ in R. P. Werbner and T. O.
Ranger, eds., Post-colonial Identities in Africa, London: Zed Books.
Renton, D., Seddon, D. and Zeilig, L., 2006, The Congo: Plunder and Resistance 1880-2005, London: Zed Books.
Richards, P., 1996, Fighting for the Rain Forest: War, Youth And Resources in Si- erra Leone, London: International African Institute in association with James Currey.
Richards, P., 2002, ‘Youth, Food and Peace: a reflection on Some African Security Issues at the Millennium’ in T. Zack-Williams, D. Frost, A. Thomson, eds., Africa in Crisis, London: Pluto Press.
Riley, S. and Parfitt, T., 1994, ‘Economic Adjustment and Democratization in Africa’ in J. Walton and D. Seddon, eds., Free Markets and Food Riots: The Politics of Global Adjustment, Oxford: Blackwell.
Rouge, 2007, ‘Amplifier la mobilisation’, 29 November.
Sandbrook, R., 1993, The Politics of Africa’s Economic Recovery, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sandbrook, R., 2000, Closing the Circle: Democratisation and Development in Africa, London: Zed
Books.
Saul, J., 2001, Millennial Africa: Capitalism, Socialism, Democracy, New Jersey: Africa World Press.
Saul, J., 2003, ‘Africa: The Next Liberation Struggle’, Review of African Politi- cal Economy, Vol. 30, No. 96, pp. 187-202.
Seddon, D., 2002, ‘Popular Protest and Class Struggle in Africa: An Historical Overview’ in L. Zeilig, ed., Class Struggle and Resistance in Africa, Chelten- ham: New Clarion Press.
Seddon, D. and Zeilig, L., 2005, ‘Class and Protest in Africa: New Waves’, Review of African Political Economy, Vol. 31, No. 103, pp. 9-27.
Smith, Z.K., 1997, ‘From Demons to Democrats: Mali’s Student Movement 1991- 1996’, Review of African Political Economy, Vol. 24, No. 72, pp. 249-263.
Socialist Worker, 2006, ‘Daniel Bensaid: This Movement is Directly Based on the Social Question’, April 4.
Teferra, D. and Altbach, P., eds., 2003, African Higher Education: An Interna- tional Reference Handbook, Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Tengende, N, 1994, Workers, Students and the Struggles for Democracy: State- Civil Society Relations in Zimbabwe, unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Roskilde Uni- versity, Denmark.
Thompson, E.P. , 1991, The Making of the English Working Class, London: Pen- guin.
Verspoor, A., 2001, A Chance to Learn: Knowledge and Finance for Education in Sub-Saharan Africa, Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
Walton, J. and Seddon, D., 1994, Free Markets and Food Riots: the Politics of Global Adjustment, Oxford: Blackwell.
World Bank, 1981, Accelerated Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, Washing- ton, D.C.: World Bank.
World Bank, 1988, Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Policies for Adjustment, Revitalization, and Expansion, Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
World Bank, 1992, Revitalisation de l’Enseignement Supérieur: Les Enjeux de la Réforme, Dakar: Départment du Sahel, Bureau régional de la Banque mondiale. World Bank, 2000, Higher Education in Developing Countries: Peril and Promise, Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
Zack-Williams, T., Frost, D. and Thomson, A., 2002, eds., Africa in Crisis: New Challenges and Possibilities, London: Pluto Press.
Zeilig, L. and Seddon, D. 2002, ‘Marxism, Class and Resistance in Africa’ in L. Zeilig, ed., Class Struggle and Resistance in Africa, Cheltenham: New Clarion Press.
Zeilig, L. and Ansell, N. 2008, ‘Spaces and Scales of African Student Activism: Senegalese and Zimbabwean University Students at the Intersection of Campus, Nation and Globe’, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp.31-54.