2 - Community Development: A Cross-Examination of Theory and Practice Using Experiences in Rural Malawi
Corresponding Author(s) : Ignasio Malizani Jimu
Africa Development,
Vol. 33 No. 2 (2008): Africa Development
Abstract
The philosophy of ‘community development’ relates to the concept of ‘locality’ and people. In essence it underscores the indispensability of local needs, aspirations and local resource mobilization within geographically and socially defined spheres. Through an appraisal of community involvement in various projects, this paper interrogates the virtues of community development practices in Malawi in the last 40 years. While acknowledging that community development or local participation, as it is popularly known, is ideal in many development activities, this paper argues that participation is not a magic pill for rural development. Participation in gravity water and social action fund projects, among others, provide instances for appreciating the opportunities and the challenges of community development. One such challenge is the absence of projects that are in every sense community-driven. With few exceptions, there is no participation that is truly voluntary. Vulnerability to poverty and lack of resources at community levels defeat efforts towards genuine community development. This is a similar outcome to projects implemented under coercive rule.
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- Arnon, I., 1986, Modernization of Agriculture in Developing Countries: Resources, potentials and problems, New York: John Wiley & Sons.
- Barnes, B., 2001, ‘The macro/micro problems and the problem of structure and agency’, in Ritzer, G. and Smart, B. (eds), Handbook of Social Theory, London: Sage.
- Belakere, R. and Jayaramaiah, K.M., 1997, ‘Community development in drought- prone areas’, Community Development Journal, 32(2): 133–140.
- Bibangambah, J.R., 1985, ‘Approaches to the problem of rural poverty in Africa, in Kiros’, F.G. (ed.), Challenging Rural Poverty: Experiences in institutional- building and popular participation for rural development in Eastern Africa, Trenton, NJ: African World Press.
- Campbell, B., 1994, ‘Praise the community, blame the mothers’, The Independent, 30 November 1994.
- Chambers, R., 1983, Rural Development: Putting the last first, London: Longman.
- Cohen, S., 1996, ‘Mobilizing communities for participation and empowerment’, in Servaes, J., Jacobson, T.L. and White, S.A. (eds), Participation for Social Change, New Delhi: Sage, pp. 223–248.
- Cross, S. and Kutengule, M., 2001, Decentralisation and Rural Livelihoods in Malawi, LADDER Working Paper No. 4 (September).
- Economist Intelligence Unit, 1999, Malawi – Country Profile, London: EIU.
- Flecknoe, C. and McLellan, N., 1994, The What and Why of Neighbourhood Community Development, London: Community Matters.
- Giddens, A. and Pierson, C., 1998, Conversations with Anthony Giddens: Making sense of modernity, Cambridge: Polity Press.
- Johnston, H., 1992, ‘Rural livelihoods: action from below, in Bernstein’, H., Crow, B. and Johnston, H. (eds) Rural Livelihoods: Crises and responses, Oxford: Oxford University Press in association with The Open University.
- Lindskog, P. and Lundquist, J., 1989, Why Poor Children Stay Sick: The human ecology of child health and welfare in rural Malawi, Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Uppsala, Research Report No. 85.
- Lwanda, J.D., 1993, Kamuzu Banda of Malawi: A study in promise power and paralysis, Glasgow: Dudu Nsomba Publications.
- Mathur, H.M., 1986, Administering Development in Third World: Constraints and choices, New Delhi: Sage.
- Mohammed, O., 1989, ‘Beekeeping in a Gambian village’, Community Development Journal, 24(4): 240–246.
- Momsen, J.H., 1991, Women and Development in the Third World, London: Routledge.
- Nambote, M.A., 1998, ‘Agricultural Extension policy in Malawi: Past experiences and future directions’, in Ahmed, A.G.M. and Mlay, W. (eds). Environment and Sustainable Development in Eastern and Southern Africa: Some critical issues, Houndmills: MacMillan Press Ltd in association with OSSREA.
- National Assembly, 2000, Supplementary Report of the Public Accounts Committee on mismanagement of public funds in the Ministry of Education, First Report presented to the House on 19 December 2000.
- Neocosmos, M., 1998, ‘From peoples’ politics to state politics: Aspects of national liberation in South Africa’, in Olukoshi, A.O. (ed.), Politics of Opposition in Contemporary Africa. Uppsala: NAI.
- Nyamnjoh, F.B., 2002, ‘A child is one person’s only in the womb’: Domestication, agency and subjectivity in the Cameroonian grassfields’, in Werbner, R. (ed.), Postcolonial Subjectivities in Africa, London: Zed Books, pp 111–138.
- Page, B., 2002, ‘Accumulation by dispossession: Communities and water privatisation in Cameroon’, PRINWASS First International Conference on the theme ‘Meaningful Interdisciplinarity’: Challenges and Opportunities for Water Research, School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford, 24–25 April.
- Passmore, J., 1972, The National Policy of Community Development in Rhodesia, Salisbury: University of Rhodesia.
- Shortall, S. and Shucksmith, M., 2001, ‘Rural development in practice, issues arising in Scotland and Northern Ireland’, Community Development Journal 36(2): 122–133.
- Singh, K., 1999, Rural Development: Principle, policies and management, New Delhi: Sage.
- Streeten, P.P., 1995, Thinking About Development, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Taylor, M., 1992, ‘Signposts to community development’, Community Development Journal, 36(1): 42–52.
- Warburton, D., 1998, ‘A passionate dialogue: Community and sustainable development, in Warburton’, D., (ed), Community and Sustainable Development, London: Earthscan Publishing Ltd.
- Worpole, K. and Greenhalgh, L., 1996, The Freedom of the City, London: Demos.
- Zo mers, A., 1991, Linking Livelihood Strategies to Development: Experiences from the Bolivian Andes, Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute.
References
Arnon, I., 1986, Modernization of Agriculture in Developing Countries: Resources, potentials and problems, New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Barnes, B., 2001, ‘The macro/micro problems and the problem of structure and agency’, in Ritzer, G. and Smart, B. (eds), Handbook of Social Theory, London: Sage.
Belakere, R. and Jayaramaiah, K.M., 1997, ‘Community development in drought- prone areas’, Community Development Journal, 32(2): 133–140.
Bibangambah, J.R., 1985, ‘Approaches to the problem of rural poverty in Africa, in Kiros’, F.G. (ed.), Challenging Rural Poverty: Experiences in institutional- building and popular participation for rural development in Eastern Africa, Trenton, NJ: African World Press.
Campbell, B., 1994, ‘Praise the community, blame the mothers’, The Independent, 30 November 1994.
Chambers, R., 1983, Rural Development: Putting the last first, London: Longman.
Cohen, S., 1996, ‘Mobilizing communities for participation and empowerment’, in Servaes, J., Jacobson, T.L. and White, S.A. (eds), Participation for Social Change, New Delhi: Sage, pp. 223–248.
Cross, S. and Kutengule, M., 2001, Decentralisation and Rural Livelihoods in Malawi, LADDER Working Paper No. 4 (September).
Economist Intelligence Unit, 1999, Malawi – Country Profile, London: EIU.
Flecknoe, C. and McLellan, N., 1994, The What and Why of Neighbourhood Community Development, London: Community Matters.
Giddens, A. and Pierson, C., 1998, Conversations with Anthony Giddens: Making sense of modernity, Cambridge: Polity Press.
Johnston, H., 1992, ‘Rural livelihoods: action from below, in Bernstein’, H., Crow, B. and Johnston, H. (eds) Rural Livelihoods: Crises and responses, Oxford: Oxford University Press in association with The Open University.
Lindskog, P. and Lundquist, J., 1989, Why Poor Children Stay Sick: The human ecology of child health and welfare in rural Malawi, Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Uppsala, Research Report No. 85.
Lwanda, J.D., 1993, Kamuzu Banda of Malawi: A study in promise power and paralysis, Glasgow: Dudu Nsomba Publications.
Mathur, H.M., 1986, Administering Development in Third World: Constraints and choices, New Delhi: Sage.
Mohammed, O., 1989, ‘Beekeeping in a Gambian village’, Community Development Journal, 24(4): 240–246.
Momsen, J.H., 1991, Women and Development in the Third World, London: Routledge.
Nambote, M.A., 1998, ‘Agricultural Extension policy in Malawi: Past experiences and future directions’, in Ahmed, A.G.M. and Mlay, W. (eds). Environment and Sustainable Development in Eastern and Southern Africa: Some critical issues, Houndmills: MacMillan Press Ltd in association with OSSREA.
National Assembly, 2000, Supplementary Report of the Public Accounts Committee on mismanagement of public funds in the Ministry of Education, First Report presented to the House on 19 December 2000.
Neocosmos, M., 1998, ‘From peoples’ politics to state politics: Aspects of national liberation in South Africa’, in Olukoshi, A.O. (ed.), Politics of Opposition in Contemporary Africa. Uppsala: NAI.
Nyamnjoh, F.B., 2002, ‘A child is one person’s only in the womb’: Domestication, agency and subjectivity in the Cameroonian grassfields’, in Werbner, R. (ed.), Postcolonial Subjectivities in Africa, London: Zed Books, pp 111–138.
Page, B., 2002, ‘Accumulation by dispossession: Communities and water privatisation in Cameroon’, PRINWASS First International Conference on the theme ‘Meaningful Interdisciplinarity’: Challenges and Opportunities for Water Research, School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford, 24–25 April.
Passmore, J., 1972, The National Policy of Community Development in Rhodesia, Salisbury: University of Rhodesia.
Shortall, S. and Shucksmith, M., 2001, ‘Rural development in practice, issues arising in Scotland and Northern Ireland’, Community Development Journal 36(2): 122–133.
Singh, K., 1999, Rural Development: Principle, policies and management, New Delhi: Sage.
Streeten, P.P., 1995, Thinking About Development, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Taylor, M., 1992, ‘Signposts to community development’, Community Development Journal, 36(1): 42–52.
Warburton, D., 1998, ‘A passionate dialogue: Community and sustainable development, in Warburton’, D., (ed), Community and Sustainable Development, London: Earthscan Publishing Ltd.
Worpole, K. and Greenhalgh, L., 1996, The Freedom of the City, London: Demos.
Zo mers, A., 1991, Linking Livelihood Strategies to Development: Experiences from the Bolivian Andes, Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute.