2 - Developmental Local Government in Post-Apartheid South Africa? A Feminist Rethinking of the State and Development in the Context of Neo-liberalism
Corresponding Author(s) : Melanie Samson
Africa Development,
Vol. 32 No. 3 (2007): Africa Development
Abstract
Neoliberal dictates and structural adjustment policies have denuded African states and attempted to limit their role to enabling the building and functioning of markets. These policies have failed to promote development, exacerbated gender inequities, and deepened Africa’s entanglement within exploitative imperialist economic relations. There is, therefore, a pressing need to re-establish a proactive, developmental role for the state in Africa. This article argues that in the current conjuncture such a project must be grounded in a radical reconceptualisation of both development and the state. Previous statist theo- ries of development erred in casting development as a set of outcomes to be delivered by the state to a passive population. Due to their inattentiveness to gender they also reproduced and exacerbated exploitative gender relations. The article argues that in a context where it is difficult to even imagine an alternative to neoliberalism, development should be redefined as building collective capac- ity to envision, create and struggle for a society and economy free of gender, racial and class exploitation. The state must be reconfigured so that it is both strengthened by and helps to build collective capacity through processes of participatory democracy attentive to addressing and overcoming the mutually constituting structural inequalities of gender, race and class.
Amidst the continent-wide retreat of the state from an active role in the development process, the post-apartheid South African policy of ‘developmen- tal local government’ would seem to be grounded in just such a retheorization of the state and development. The policy establishes that the local government must promote development, redress apartheid inequalities and be participatory and gender sensitive. The article argues however that the South African ap- proach is compromised by three fundamental weaknesses at the level of policy formulation. These pertain to the liberal conceptualisation of participation, the reduction of commitments to gender transformation to a focus on the participa- tion of women, and the endorsement of a contracting vision for the local state which eliminates an active role for either the state or the citizenry in the develop- ment process. The article concludes by exploring more successful attempts at gender transformative, participatory approaches to governance and development in other parts of the world and reflecting on the challenges to pursuing them in the South African context.
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- Alexander, M. J. and Mohanty, C. T., 1997, ‘Introduction: Genealogies, Legacies, Movements’, in M. Jacqui Alexander and Chandra Talpade Mohanty, eds., Feminist Genealogies, Colonial Legacies, Democratic Futures, London and New York: Routledge.
- Arrighi, G., 1991, ‘World Income Inequalities and the Future of Socialism’, New Left Review, 189, September–October: 39-65.
- Arrighi, G., Silver, B.J. and Brewer, B.D., 2003, ‘Industrial Convergence, Globalization, and the Persistence of the North-South Divide’, Studies in Comparative Industrial Development, 38 (1): 3-27.
- Bakker, I., 2003, ‘Neo-liberal Governance and the Reprivatization of Social Reproduction: Social Provisioning and Shifting Gender Orders’, in I. Bakker and S. Gill, eds., Power, Production and Social Reproduction, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
- Bakker, I. and Gill, S., eds., 2003, Power, Production and Social Reproduction, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
- Barchiesi, F., 2001, ‘Fiscal Discipline and Worker Responses in the Restructuring of Johannesburg’s Municipal Solid Waste Management’, Paper presented at the Annual Congress of the South African Sociological Association, Pretoria, UNISA, 1-4 July 2001, unpublished: Johannesburg.
- Beall, J., 2005, ‘Decentralizing Government and Decentring Gender: Lessons from Local Government Reform in South Africa’, Politics and Society, 33 (2): 253- 276.
- Beall, J., 2004, ‘Decentralisation and Gender Equity in Southern Africa: Lessons from the South African Experience of Local Governance’, Draft Background Paper for the UNRISD Gender Policy Report Section Four: Gender, Democratisation and Governance, unpublished: London.
- Beall, J., Crankshaw, O., and Parnell, S., 2002, Uniting a Divided City: Governance and Social Exclusion in Johannesburg, London: Earthscan.
- Boserup, E., 1970, Women’s Role in Economic Development, London: George Allen and Unwin.
- Brodie, J., 1995, ‘Restructuring and the New Citizenship’, in I. Bakker, ed., Rethinking Restructuring: Gender and Change in Canada, London: University of Toronto Press.
- Brodie, J., 1994, ‘Shifting the Boundaries: Gender and the Politics of Restructuring’, in I. Bakker, ed., The Strategic Silence: Gender and Economic Policy, London: Zed Books.
- Chaskalson, M., Jochelson, K. and Seekings, J., 1987, ‘Rent Boycotts and the Urban Political Economy’, in South African Review 4, edited by Glenn Moss and Ingrid Obery, Johannesburg: Ravan Press.
- City of Johannesburg Council, 2001, Johannesburg: An African City in Change, Cape Town: Zebra Press.
- Coalition Against Water Privatisation, July 2004, ‘The Struggle Against Silent Disconnections: Prepaid Meters and the Struggle for Life in Phiri, Soweto’, www.apf.org.za.
- Cooper, F. and Packard, R., 1997, ‘Introduction’, in Frederick Cooper and Randall Packard, eds., International Development and the Social Sciences: Essays on the History and Politics of Knowledge, Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Croesser, G., 1991, ‘Autonomy in Local Authority Finance’, in M. Swilling et al., eds., Apartheid City in Transition, Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
- Davis, D., 2003, ‘From the Freedom Charter to the Washington Consensus’, in D. Everatt and V. Maphai, eds., The Real State of the Nation: South Africa After 1990, Development Update Special Edition, 4 (3), Johannesburg: Interfund.
- Elson, D., ed., 1995, Male Bias in the Development Process, Second Edition, Manchester: Manchester University Press.
- Fudge, J. and Cossman, B., 2002, ‘Introduction: Privatization, Law, and the Challenge to Feminism’, in F. Cossman and J. Fudge, eds., Privatisation, Law and the Challenge to Feminism, Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
- Gelb, S., 2003, ‘Inequality in South Africa: Nature, Causes and Responses’, Paper prepared for DfID Policy Initiative on Addressing Inequality in Middle-Income Countries, November, The Edge Institute: Johannesburg.
- George, S. and Sabelli, F., 1994, Faith and Credit: The World Bank’s Secular Empire, London: Penguin Books.
- Gilbert, N. and Gilbert, B., 1989, The Enabling State: Modern Welfare Capitalism in America, New York: Oxford University Press.
- Graf, W., 1995, ‘The State in the Third World’, in Leo Panitch and Colin Leys, eds, Socialist Register 1995, London: Merlin Press.
- Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Council, (GJMC), 1999a, ‘iGoli 2002: Making the City Work - It Cannot Be Business As Usual’, Johannesburg: Metropolitan Corporate Services.
- Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Council, 2000a, ‘iGoli 2002: Making Greater Johannesburg Work’, Johannesburg: GJMC.
- Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Council, 2000b, ‘Waste Management Utility, Comprehensive Ring Fencing Exercise, Volume 2: Technical Report’, unpublished: Johannesburg.
- Hart, G., 2001, ‘Development Critiques in the 1990s: Culs de Sac and Promising Paths’, Progress in Human Geography, 25 (4): 649-658.
- Hassim, S., 2004, ‘Voices, Hierarchies and Spaces: Reconfiguring the Women’s Movement in Democratic South Africa’, Paper prepared for the Social Movements Project, Durban: University of Kwa-Zulu Natal, Centre for Civil Society.
- Heller, P., 2001, ‘Moving the State: The Politics of Democratic Decentralization in Kerala, South Africa and Porto Alegre’, Politics and Society, 29 (1): 131-163.
- Hoogvelt, A., 2001, Globalization and the Postcolonial World: The New Political Economy of Development, Second Edition, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Leys, C., 1996a, The Rise and Fall of Development Theory, Oxford: James Currey.
- Leys, C., 1996b, ‘Globalization: The World, Society and the Individual’, Southern Africa Report, April: 17-21.
- Mabin, A., 1991, ‘The Dynamics of Urbanization since 1960’, in M. Swilling et al., eds., Apartheid City in Transition, Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
- Marais, H., 1998, South Africa Limits to Change: the Political Economy of Transformation, Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press.
- Mather, G., 1991, ‘Thatcherism and Local Government: An Evaluation’, in J. Stewart and G. Stoker, eds., The Future of Local Government, London: Macmillan.
- McDonald, D., 2002, ‘The Theory and Practice of Cost Recovery in South Africa’, in D. McDonald and J. Pape, eds., Cost Recovery and the Crisis of Service Delivery in South Africa, Cape Town: HSRC.
- McEwan, C., 2003, ‘“Bringing Government to the People”: Women, Local Governance and Community Participation in South Africa’, Geoforum, 34: 469- 481.
- Ministry for Provincial Affairs and Constitutional Development, 1998, The White Paper on Local Government, Pretoria: Ministry of Provincial Affairs and Constitutional Development.
- Moore, D., 1999, ‘“Sail on, O Shop of State”: Neo-Liberalism, Globalisation and the Governance of Africa’, The Journal of Peasant Studies, 27 (1): 61-96.
- Nussbaum, M., 2000. Women and Human Development: The Capabilities Approach, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Oldfield, S., 2002, ‘‘Embedded Autonomy’ and the Challenges of Developmental Local Government’, in S. Parnell, E. Pieterse, M. Swilling and D. Wooldridge, eds., Democratising Local Government: The South African Experiment, Cape Town: UCT Press.
- Olin Wright, E., 2003, ‘Preface: The Real Utopias Project’, in Deepening Democracy: Institutional Innovations in Empowered Participatory Governance, London: Verso.
- Orange Farm Water Crisis Committee, Anti-Privatisation Forum and the Coalition Against Water Privatisation, June 2004, ‘Destroy the Meter/Enjoy Free Water’, http://www.apf.org.za/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=23.
- Panitch, L., 1994, ‘Globalisation and the State’, The Socialist Register 1994, London: Merlin Press.
- Panitch, L. and Gindin, S., 2005, ‘Bringing the Working Class In: Mike Lebowitz’s Beyond Capital’, Unpublished paper.
- Pape, J. and McDonald, D., 2002, ‘Introduction’, in D. McDonald and J. Pape, eds., Cost Recovery and the Crisis of Service Delivery in South Africa, Cape Town: HSRC.
- Pateman, C., 1988, The Sexual Contract, Oxford: Polity Press. Pikitup, Undated, ‘A Load of Rubbish’, Johannesburg: Pikitup.
- Pointer, R., 2004, ‘Questioning the Representation of South Africa’s “New Social Movements”: A Case Study of the Mandela Park Anti-Eviction Campaign’, Journal of Asian and African Studies, 39 (4): 271-294.
- PriceWaterhouse Coopers, Ebony Financial Services and KMMT Brey, 1998, ‘Organisational Review for Greater Johannesburg Transitional Metropolitan Council and Local Councils, Phase 2: Envisioning Organisational Design Final Report, 20 April 1998’, Unpublished: Johannesburg.
- Public Citizen, 2004a, ‘Orange Farm, South Africa: The Forced Implementation of Prepaid Water Meters’, www.wateractivist.org.
- Public Citizen, The Anti-Privatization Forum and The Coalition Against Water Privatisation, 2004, ‘Nothing for Mahala: The Forced Installation of Prepaid Water Metres in Stretford, Extension 4, Orange Farm, Johannesburg - South Africa’, www.wateractivist.org.
- Rai, Shirin M., 1996, ‘Women and the State in the Third World: Some Issues for Debate’, in Shrin M. Rai and Geraldine Lievesly, eds., Women and the State: International Perspectives, London: Taylor and Francis.
- Republic of South Africa, 2000, Local Government: Municipal Systems Act, 2000, Pretoria: Government Printers.
- Republic of South Africa, 1996, The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Act 108 of 1996, Pretoria: Government Printers.
- Republic of South Africa, 1993, Local Government Transition Act, 1993, no. 209 of 1993, Pretoria: Government Printers.
- Ruiters, G., 2002, ‘Commodified Water, Race and Social Justice in South Africa: A Study of Three Privatisation Experiences in Post-Apartheid South African Municipalities, 1990–2000’, Dissertation submitted to Johns Hopkins University in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Unpublished: Baltimore.
- Samson, M., 2008, ‘Rescaling the State, Restructuring Social Relations – Local Government Transformation in Post-Apartheid Johannesburg and Its Implications for Waste Management Workers’, International Feminist Journal of Politics 10(1),
- Saul, J. S., 2004, ‘Globalization, Imperialism, Development: False Binaries and Radical Resolutions’, in Socialist Register 2004, edited by Leo Panitch and Colin Leys, London: Merlin Press.
- Saul, J. S., 1994, ‘Globalism, Socialism and Democracy in the South African Transition’, Socialist Register 1994. London: Merlin Press.
- Saul, J. S., 2001a, ‘“For Fear of being Condemned as Old-fashioned”: Liberal Democracy vs. Popular Democracy in sub-Saharan Africa’, in Millennial Africa: Capitalism, Socialism, Democracy, Trenton, N. J.: Africa World Press Inc.
- Seema, T.N. and Mukherjee, V. N., 2000, ‘Gender, Governance and Citizenship in Decentralised Planning: The Experience of People’s Campaign in Kerala’, Paper presented at the International Conference on Democratic Decentralisation, Thiruvananthapuram, 23-27 May.
- Sen, A., 1999, Development as Freedom, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Shivji, I. G., 2004, ‘Good Governance, Bad Governance and the Quest for Democracy in Africa: An Alternative Perspective’. HakiElimu Working Paper Series No. 8, Dar es Salaam: HakiElimu. http://www.hakielimu.org/WP/WPSeries8_2004.pdf
- Shubane, K., 1991, ‘Black Local Authorities: a Contraption of Control’, in M. Swilling, R. Humphries and K. Shubane, eds., Apartheid City in Transition, Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
- Silva, R.T., 1999, ‘Comments on the Greater Johannesburg iGoli 2002 Plan’, PSIRU paper for SAMWU Workshop on iGoli 2002, unpublished: Johannesburg.
- South African Cities Network (SACN), 2004, State of the Cities Report 2004, Johannesburg: South African Cities Network.
- SAMWU, 1999, ‘Local Government Restructuring and Transformation: The Johannesburg Case’, unpublished: Johannesburg.
- Social Movements Indaba, 2004, ‘Alternative Logic’, Mail and Guardian, June 25-July 1: 33.
- Stoker, G., 1991, ‘Creating a Local Government for a Post-Fordist Society: The Thatcherite Project?’, in The Future of Local Government, edited by J. Stewart and G. Stoker, London: Macmillan.
- Swilling, M., 1991, ‘Introduction’, in M. Swilling, R. Humphries and K. Shubane, eds., Apartheid City in Transition, Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
- Tomlinson, R., R. A. Beauregard, L. Bremmer, X. Mangcu, X., 2003, Emerging Johannesburg: Perspectives on the Post-apartheid City, London: Routledge. Vera-Zavala, A., 2005, ‘Democracy Lives - A World Mosaic of Participatory Democratic Experiences’.
- Von Don, M., 2002, ‘Local Government’s Role in Realising Gender Equality: From Policy to Practice’, in S. Parnell, E. Pieterse, M. Swilling and D. Wooldridge, eds., Democratising Local Government: The South African Experiment, Cape Town: UCT Press.
- Walsh, K., 1991, ‘Competition and Service in Local Government’, in The Future of Local Government, edited by J. Stewart and G. Stoker, London: Macmillan.
- Young, B., 2003, ‘Financial Crises and Social Reproduction: Asia, Argentina and Brazil’, in I. Bakker and S., eds., Gill Power, Production and Social Reproduction, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
References
Alexander, M. J. and Mohanty, C. T., 1997, ‘Introduction: Genealogies, Legacies, Movements’, in M. Jacqui Alexander and Chandra Talpade Mohanty, eds., Feminist Genealogies, Colonial Legacies, Democratic Futures, London and New York: Routledge.
Arrighi, G., 1991, ‘World Income Inequalities and the Future of Socialism’, New Left Review, 189, September–October: 39-65.
Arrighi, G., Silver, B.J. and Brewer, B.D., 2003, ‘Industrial Convergence, Globalization, and the Persistence of the North-South Divide’, Studies in Comparative Industrial Development, 38 (1): 3-27.
Bakker, I., 2003, ‘Neo-liberal Governance and the Reprivatization of Social Reproduction: Social Provisioning and Shifting Gender Orders’, in I. Bakker and S. Gill, eds., Power, Production and Social Reproduction, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Bakker, I. and Gill, S., eds., 2003, Power, Production and Social Reproduction, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Barchiesi, F., 2001, ‘Fiscal Discipline and Worker Responses in the Restructuring of Johannesburg’s Municipal Solid Waste Management’, Paper presented at the Annual Congress of the South African Sociological Association, Pretoria, UNISA, 1-4 July 2001, unpublished: Johannesburg.
Beall, J., 2005, ‘Decentralizing Government and Decentring Gender: Lessons from Local Government Reform in South Africa’, Politics and Society, 33 (2): 253- 276.
Beall, J., 2004, ‘Decentralisation and Gender Equity in Southern Africa: Lessons from the South African Experience of Local Governance’, Draft Background Paper for the UNRISD Gender Policy Report Section Four: Gender, Democratisation and Governance, unpublished: London.
Beall, J., Crankshaw, O., and Parnell, S., 2002, Uniting a Divided City: Governance and Social Exclusion in Johannesburg, London: Earthscan.
Boserup, E., 1970, Women’s Role in Economic Development, London: George Allen and Unwin.
Brodie, J., 1995, ‘Restructuring and the New Citizenship’, in I. Bakker, ed., Rethinking Restructuring: Gender and Change in Canada, London: University of Toronto Press.
Brodie, J., 1994, ‘Shifting the Boundaries: Gender and the Politics of Restructuring’, in I. Bakker, ed., The Strategic Silence: Gender and Economic Policy, London: Zed Books.
Chaskalson, M., Jochelson, K. and Seekings, J., 1987, ‘Rent Boycotts and the Urban Political Economy’, in South African Review 4, edited by Glenn Moss and Ingrid Obery, Johannesburg: Ravan Press.
City of Johannesburg Council, 2001, Johannesburg: An African City in Change, Cape Town: Zebra Press.
Coalition Against Water Privatisation, July 2004, ‘The Struggle Against Silent Disconnections: Prepaid Meters and the Struggle for Life in Phiri, Soweto’, www.apf.org.za.
Cooper, F. and Packard, R., 1997, ‘Introduction’, in Frederick Cooper and Randall Packard, eds., International Development and the Social Sciences: Essays on the History and Politics of Knowledge, Berkeley: University of California Press.
Croesser, G., 1991, ‘Autonomy in Local Authority Finance’, in M. Swilling et al., eds., Apartheid City in Transition, Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Davis, D., 2003, ‘From the Freedom Charter to the Washington Consensus’, in D. Everatt and V. Maphai, eds., The Real State of the Nation: South Africa After 1990, Development Update Special Edition, 4 (3), Johannesburg: Interfund.
Elson, D., ed., 1995, Male Bias in the Development Process, Second Edition, Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Fudge, J. and Cossman, B., 2002, ‘Introduction: Privatization, Law, and the Challenge to Feminism’, in F. Cossman and J. Fudge, eds., Privatisation, Law and the Challenge to Feminism, Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Gelb, S., 2003, ‘Inequality in South Africa: Nature, Causes and Responses’, Paper prepared for DfID Policy Initiative on Addressing Inequality in Middle-Income Countries, November, The Edge Institute: Johannesburg.
George, S. and Sabelli, F., 1994, Faith and Credit: The World Bank’s Secular Empire, London: Penguin Books.
Gilbert, N. and Gilbert, B., 1989, The Enabling State: Modern Welfare Capitalism in America, New York: Oxford University Press.
Graf, W., 1995, ‘The State in the Third World’, in Leo Panitch and Colin Leys, eds, Socialist Register 1995, London: Merlin Press.
Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Council, (GJMC), 1999a, ‘iGoli 2002: Making the City Work - It Cannot Be Business As Usual’, Johannesburg: Metropolitan Corporate Services.
Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Council, 2000a, ‘iGoli 2002: Making Greater Johannesburg Work’, Johannesburg: GJMC.
Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Council, 2000b, ‘Waste Management Utility, Comprehensive Ring Fencing Exercise, Volume 2: Technical Report’, unpublished: Johannesburg.
Hart, G., 2001, ‘Development Critiques in the 1990s: Culs de Sac and Promising Paths’, Progress in Human Geography, 25 (4): 649-658.
Hassim, S., 2004, ‘Voices, Hierarchies and Spaces: Reconfiguring the Women’s Movement in Democratic South Africa’, Paper prepared for the Social Movements Project, Durban: University of Kwa-Zulu Natal, Centre for Civil Society.
Heller, P., 2001, ‘Moving the State: The Politics of Democratic Decentralization in Kerala, South Africa and Porto Alegre’, Politics and Society, 29 (1): 131-163.
Hoogvelt, A., 2001, Globalization and the Postcolonial World: The New Political Economy of Development, Second Edition, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Leys, C., 1996a, The Rise and Fall of Development Theory, Oxford: James Currey.
Leys, C., 1996b, ‘Globalization: The World, Society and the Individual’, Southern Africa Report, April: 17-21.
Mabin, A., 1991, ‘The Dynamics of Urbanization since 1960’, in M. Swilling et al., eds., Apartheid City in Transition, Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Marais, H., 1998, South Africa Limits to Change: the Political Economy of Transformation, Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press.
Mather, G., 1991, ‘Thatcherism and Local Government: An Evaluation’, in J. Stewart and G. Stoker, eds., The Future of Local Government, London: Macmillan.
McDonald, D., 2002, ‘The Theory and Practice of Cost Recovery in South Africa’, in D. McDonald and J. Pape, eds., Cost Recovery and the Crisis of Service Delivery in South Africa, Cape Town: HSRC.
McEwan, C., 2003, ‘“Bringing Government to the People”: Women, Local Governance and Community Participation in South Africa’, Geoforum, 34: 469- 481.
Ministry for Provincial Affairs and Constitutional Development, 1998, The White Paper on Local Government, Pretoria: Ministry of Provincial Affairs and Constitutional Development.
Moore, D., 1999, ‘“Sail on, O Shop of State”: Neo-Liberalism, Globalisation and the Governance of Africa’, The Journal of Peasant Studies, 27 (1): 61-96.
Nussbaum, M., 2000. Women and Human Development: The Capabilities Approach, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Oldfield, S., 2002, ‘‘Embedded Autonomy’ and the Challenges of Developmental Local Government’, in S. Parnell, E. Pieterse, M. Swilling and D. Wooldridge, eds., Democratising Local Government: The South African Experiment, Cape Town: UCT Press.
Olin Wright, E., 2003, ‘Preface: The Real Utopias Project’, in Deepening Democracy: Institutional Innovations in Empowered Participatory Governance, London: Verso.
Orange Farm Water Crisis Committee, Anti-Privatisation Forum and the Coalition Against Water Privatisation, June 2004, ‘Destroy the Meter/Enjoy Free Water’, http://www.apf.org.za/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=23.
Panitch, L., 1994, ‘Globalisation and the State’, The Socialist Register 1994, London: Merlin Press.
Panitch, L. and Gindin, S., 2005, ‘Bringing the Working Class In: Mike Lebowitz’s Beyond Capital’, Unpublished paper.
Pape, J. and McDonald, D., 2002, ‘Introduction’, in D. McDonald and J. Pape, eds., Cost Recovery and the Crisis of Service Delivery in South Africa, Cape Town: HSRC.
Pateman, C., 1988, The Sexual Contract, Oxford: Polity Press. Pikitup, Undated, ‘A Load of Rubbish’, Johannesburg: Pikitup.
Pointer, R., 2004, ‘Questioning the Representation of South Africa’s “New Social Movements”: A Case Study of the Mandela Park Anti-Eviction Campaign’, Journal of Asian and African Studies, 39 (4): 271-294.
PriceWaterhouse Coopers, Ebony Financial Services and KMMT Brey, 1998, ‘Organisational Review for Greater Johannesburg Transitional Metropolitan Council and Local Councils, Phase 2: Envisioning Organisational Design Final Report, 20 April 1998’, Unpublished: Johannesburg.
Public Citizen, 2004a, ‘Orange Farm, South Africa: The Forced Implementation of Prepaid Water Meters’, www.wateractivist.org.
Public Citizen, The Anti-Privatization Forum and The Coalition Against Water Privatisation, 2004, ‘Nothing for Mahala: The Forced Installation of Prepaid Water Metres in Stretford, Extension 4, Orange Farm, Johannesburg - South Africa’, www.wateractivist.org.
Rai, Shirin M., 1996, ‘Women and the State in the Third World: Some Issues for Debate’, in Shrin M. Rai and Geraldine Lievesly, eds., Women and the State: International Perspectives, London: Taylor and Francis.
Republic of South Africa, 2000, Local Government: Municipal Systems Act, 2000, Pretoria: Government Printers.
Republic of South Africa, 1996, The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Act 108 of 1996, Pretoria: Government Printers.
Republic of South Africa, 1993, Local Government Transition Act, 1993, no. 209 of 1993, Pretoria: Government Printers.
Ruiters, G., 2002, ‘Commodified Water, Race and Social Justice in South Africa: A Study of Three Privatisation Experiences in Post-Apartheid South African Municipalities, 1990–2000’, Dissertation submitted to Johns Hopkins University in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Unpublished: Baltimore.
Samson, M., 2008, ‘Rescaling the State, Restructuring Social Relations – Local Government Transformation in Post-Apartheid Johannesburg and Its Implications for Waste Management Workers’, International Feminist Journal of Politics 10(1),
Saul, J. S., 2004, ‘Globalization, Imperialism, Development: False Binaries and Radical Resolutions’, in Socialist Register 2004, edited by Leo Panitch and Colin Leys, London: Merlin Press.
Saul, J. S., 1994, ‘Globalism, Socialism and Democracy in the South African Transition’, Socialist Register 1994. London: Merlin Press.
Saul, J. S., 2001a, ‘“For Fear of being Condemned as Old-fashioned”: Liberal Democracy vs. Popular Democracy in sub-Saharan Africa’, in Millennial Africa: Capitalism, Socialism, Democracy, Trenton, N. J.: Africa World Press Inc.
Seema, T.N. and Mukherjee, V. N., 2000, ‘Gender, Governance and Citizenship in Decentralised Planning: The Experience of People’s Campaign in Kerala’, Paper presented at the International Conference on Democratic Decentralisation, Thiruvananthapuram, 23-27 May.
Sen, A., 1999, Development as Freedom, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Shivji, I. G., 2004, ‘Good Governance, Bad Governance and the Quest for Democracy in Africa: An Alternative Perspective’. HakiElimu Working Paper Series No. 8, Dar es Salaam: HakiElimu. http://www.hakielimu.org/WP/WPSeries8_2004.pdf
Shubane, K., 1991, ‘Black Local Authorities: a Contraption of Control’, in M. Swilling, R. Humphries and K. Shubane, eds., Apartheid City in Transition, Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Silva, R.T., 1999, ‘Comments on the Greater Johannesburg iGoli 2002 Plan’, PSIRU paper for SAMWU Workshop on iGoli 2002, unpublished: Johannesburg.
South African Cities Network (SACN), 2004, State of the Cities Report 2004, Johannesburg: South African Cities Network.
SAMWU, 1999, ‘Local Government Restructuring and Transformation: The Johannesburg Case’, unpublished: Johannesburg.
Social Movements Indaba, 2004, ‘Alternative Logic’, Mail and Guardian, June 25-July 1: 33.
Stoker, G., 1991, ‘Creating a Local Government for a Post-Fordist Society: The Thatcherite Project?’, in The Future of Local Government, edited by J. Stewart and G. Stoker, London: Macmillan.
Swilling, M., 1991, ‘Introduction’, in M. Swilling, R. Humphries and K. Shubane, eds., Apartheid City in Transition, Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Tomlinson, R., R. A. Beauregard, L. Bremmer, X. Mangcu, X., 2003, Emerging Johannesburg: Perspectives on the Post-apartheid City, London: Routledge. Vera-Zavala, A., 2005, ‘Democracy Lives - A World Mosaic of Participatory Democratic Experiences’.
Von Don, M., 2002, ‘Local Government’s Role in Realising Gender Equality: From Policy to Practice’, in S. Parnell, E. Pieterse, M. Swilling and D. Wooldridge, eds., Democratising Local Government: The South African Experiment, Cape Town: UCT Press.
Walsh, K., 1991, ‘Competition and Service in Local Government’, in The Future of Local Government, edited by J. Stewart and G. Stoker, London: Macmillan.
Young, B., 2003, ‘Financial Crises and Social Reproduction: Asia, Argentina and Brazil’, in I. Bakker and S., eds., Gill Power, Production and Social Reproduction, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.