7 - Changing the Culture of Migration? Attitudes towards Education among Former Basotho Labour Migrants to South African Mines
Corresponding Author(s) : France Maphosa
Africa Development,
Vol. 38 No. 1-2 (2013): Africa Development
Abstract
Until late in the 1990s, employment for unskilled and uneducated able-bodied Basotho men on South African mines was usually available. As a result, the education of male children in most Basotho households was not prioritised. In the 1990s, massive retrenchments took place at the mines, resulting in many Basotho men being retrenched and repatriated. Most of those retrenched did not have any formal education and were generally unskilled. Many of the ex- miners believed that they were retrenched to make way for an educated workforce. Back home, they experienced problems getting employment because of their lack of formal education. These experiences, combined with efforts by the government of Lesotho and its development partners to promote education, have led to a change in the attitudes of the former miners towards education. Most of them now have positive attitudes towards education as they perceive it as a more secure and more sustainable means of getting employment and a vehicle for economic and social mobility. Based on qualitative data obtained from former mine workers this paper provides evidence that as a result of new realities, former migrants are developing positive attitudes towards education. The change in attitude towards education can however, only evolve into a change in the culture of migration if, over time, the benefits of education outweigh those of migration.
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- Ali, S., 2007, ‘“Go west young man”: the culture of migration among Muslims in Hyderabad, India’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 33 (1): 37-58.
- Asis, M. B., 2006, ‘The Philippines’ culture of migration’, Migration Policy Information, Washington, DC.
- Bezuidenhout, A., 1999, ‘Between a rock and a hard place: productivity agreements in gold mining’, South African Labour Bulletin, 23 (4): 69-74.
- Boeder, R. B., 1974, ‘Malawians abroad: The history of labour emigration from Malawi to its neighbours, 1890 to the present’, Unpublished PhD thesis, submitted to Michigan State University, Department of History.
- Brettell, C. B., 2003, Anthropology and Migration: Essays on Transnationalism, Ethnicity and Identity, Walnut Creek/Oxford: Altamira Press.
- Brettell, C. B., and Holifield, J. F., 2000, ‘Introduction: migration theory: talking across disciplines’, in Brettell, C. B. and Holifield, J. F., eds., Migration theory: Talking Across Disciplines, New York: Routledge.
- Burn, S.M., 1996, The Social Psychology of Gender, California: McGraw Hill. Central Bank of Lesotho (CBL), 2001. Quarterly Review, September 2001, XX (3), Maseru, Kingdom of Lesotho.
- Crush, J., Jeeves, A. and Yudelman, D., 1991, South Africa’s Labour Empire: A history of Black Migrancy to the Gold Mines, Cape Town: David Philip. Crush, J. and James, W., 1995, Labour migrancy in Southern Africa: prospects for post-apartheid transformation, University of Cape Town: Labour Law Unit. Daniels, G., 2002, ‘The great skills grab’, The Mail and Guardian, 20-26 September,
- (37).
- De Vletter, F., 1987, ‘Foreign labour on the South African gold mines: new problem or an old problem’, International Labour Review, 126 (2): 199-218.
- Eldredge, A.E., 1993, The South Africa Kingdom: The Pursue of Security in Nineteenth-Century Lesotho, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gay, J., 2000, ‘Migration attitudes of skilled professionals in Lesotho’, Africa Insight, 30 (2): 65-74.
- Gibson, H., 2005. ‘The culture of migration in Southern Mexico’, Contemporary Sociology, 34 (6): 647-648.
- Giddens, A., 1984, The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration, Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Hishongwa, N., 1991, The Contract Labour System and its Effects on Family and Social Life in Namibia: A Historical Perspective, Windhoek: MacMillan Publishers.
- Hobane, A.P., 1996, The Commercialisation of Gonimbrasia Belina in Bulilima- Mangwe District: Problems and Prospects, Unpublished MPhil thesis, Harare: Centre for Applied Social Sciences.
- IRIN, 2011, ‘Mali: Culture of migration faces tough new realities’, (http:// www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=61471 - accessed on 15/11/11).
- Kandel, W. and Massey, D., 2000, ‘The culture Mexican migration: A theoretical and empirical analysis’, Social Forces, 80 (3): 981-1004.
- Katz, D., 1960, ‘The functional approach to the study of attitudes’, Public Opinion Quarterly, 24 (2): 163-204.
- Keegan, T., 1986, ‘Trade, accumulation and impoverishment: Mercantile capital and the economic transformation of Lesotho and the conquered territory, 1870-1920’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 12 (2): 196-216.
- Kimble, J., 1999, Migrant Labour and Colonial Rule Basutoland, 1890 -1930, Grahamstown, South Africa: Institute of Social and Economic Research, Rhodes University. Mangezvo, P.L., n.d., ‘Debating notions of “triumphant return” of male migrants from Zimbabwe’, in R. Mate, ed., Migration from Zimbabwe: Understanding migration in a context of an African political crisis, Consolidated report of the Zimbabwe national working group, submitted to the Council for the Development of Social Science in Africa (CODESRIA), Dakar.
- Maphosa, F., 2004, ‘The impact of remittances from Zimbabweans working in South Africa on rural livelihoods in the Southern districts of Zimbabwe’, Research report submitted to the Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA), (http://www.Livelihoods.org/hot_topics/ migration/remittancesindex.html
- Maphosa, F., 2011, ‘Multiple Involvements or Multiple Exclusions: Transnational Experiences of Communities on the Zimbabwe-South Africa Borderlands’, Addis Ababa, OSSREA.
- Markham, C., and Mothibeli, M., ‘The 1987 Mineworkers’ Strike’, South African Labour Bulletin, 13: 58-75.
- Massey, D.S., Arango, J., Hugo, G., Ali, K., Pellerino, A. and Taylor, J. E., 1993, ‘Theories of international migration: A review and appraisal’, Population and Development Review, 3:431-466.
- McNamara, K., 1995, ‘Gate politics: Competing interests in mine hostels’, in Crush, J. & James, W., eds., Crossing Boundaries: Mine Migrancy in a Democratic South Africa, Cape Town: Creda Press.
- Mills, D. & Sswakiryanga, R., 2005, ‘No Romance without Finance: Commodities, Massculinities & Relationships amongst Kampala Students’, in Cornwall A., ed., Readings in Gender in Africa, Indiana, Indiana University Press.
- Monyau, M.K., 2000, ‘Macroeconomic impact and prospects of downscaling in the RSA mining industry’, Central Bank of Lesotho, Maseru.
- Morojele, R. N., 2004, Determining the attitudes/perceptions of retrenched Lesotho migrant labourers from the RSA mining industries regarding education using their career life histories, Unpublished MPhil Thesis, submitted to The University of Stellenbosch, South Africa.
- Murray, C., 1981, Families Divided: The Impact of Migrant labour in Lesotho, Johannesburg: Ravan.
- Phillip, K., 1995, ‘The NUM job creation and development programme’, in Crush, J. & James, W., eds., Crossing Boundaries: Mine migrancy in a democratic South Africa, Cape Town, Creda Press.
- Schapera, I., 1947, Migrant Labour and Tribal Life, London: Oxford University.
- Seidman, G.W., 1993, ‘Shafted: The social impact of downscaling on the Free State Goldfields’, South African Sociological Review, 5, 2: 14-34.
- Thabane, M. and Guy, J., 1984, ‘Unemployment and casual labour in Maseru: The impact of changing employment strategies on migrant labourers in Lesotho’, Cape Town, Carnegie Conference paper, no. 124.
- Thoahlane, T. & Coplan, D., 1995, ‘Motherless households, landless farms: employment patterns among Lesotho migrants’, in Crush, J. & James, W., eds., Crossing Boundaries: Mine Migrancy in a democratic South Africa, Cape Town: Creda Press.
- Thompson, E.H. Jr and Pleck, J. H., 1987, ‘The structure of male role norms’, in Kimmel, S.M., ed., Changing Men: New Direction in Research on Men and Masculinity, London: Sage Publications.
- Timmerman, C., 2008, ‘Marriage in a culture of migration: Emirdag marrying into Flanders’, European Review, 16 (4): 585-594.
- UNICEF, June 2001, ‘Child Workers in the Shadow of Aids: Listening to the Children’, Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Office, Nairobi.
- Weyl, U., 1991, Labour Migration and Underdevelopment in Malawi: Late 19th Century to Mid 1970s, Masvingo: Belmont Printers.
References
Ali, S., 2007, ‘“Go west young man”: the culture of migration among Muslims in Hyderabad, India’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 33 (1): 37-58.
Asis, M. B., 2006, ‘The Philippines’ culture of migration’, Migration Policy Information, Washington, DC.
Bezuidenhout, A., 1999, ‘Between a rock and a hard place: productivity agreements in gold mining’, South African Labour Bulletin, 23 (4): 69-74.
Boeder, R. B., 1974, ‘Malawians abroad: The history of labour emigration from Malawi to its neighbours, 1890 to the present’, Unpublished PhD thesis, submitted to Michigan State University, Department of History.
Brettell, C. B., 2003, Anthropology and Migration: Essays on Transnationalism, Ethnicity and Identity, Walnut Creek/Oxford: Altamira Press.
Brettell, C. B., and Holifield, J. F., 2000, ‘Introduction: migration theory: talking across disciplines’, in Brettell, C. B. and Holifield, J. F., eds., Migration theory: Talking Across Disciplines, New York: Routledge.
Burn, S.M., 1996, The Social Psychology of Gender, California: McGraw Hill. Central Bank of Lesotho (CBL), 2001. Quarterly Review, September 2001, XX (3), Maseru, Kingdom of Lesotho.
Crush, J., Jeeves, A. and Yudelman, D., 1991, South Africa’s Labour Empire: A history of Black Migrancy to the Gold Mines, Cape Town: David Philip. Crush, J. and James, W., 1995, Labour migrancy in Southern Africa: prospects for post-apartheid transformation, University of Cape Town: Labour Law Unit. Daniels, G., 2002, ‘The great skills grab’, The Mail and Guardian, 20-26 September,
(37).
De Vletter, F., 1987, ‘Foreign labour on the South African gold mines: new problem or an old problem’, International Labour Review, 126 (2): 199-218.
Eldredge, A.E., 1993, The South Africa Kingdom: The Pursue of Security in Nineteenth-Century Lesotho, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gay, J., 2000, ‘Migration attitudes of skilled professionals in Lesotho’, Africa Insight, 30 (2): 65-74.
Gibson, H., 2005. ‘The culture of migration in Southern Mexico’, Contemporary Sociology, 34 (6): 647-648.
Giddens, A., 1984, The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration, Berkeley: University of California Press.
Hishongwa, N., 1991, The Contract Labour System and its Effects on Family and Social Life in Namibia: A Historical Perspective, Windhoek: MacMillan Publishers.
Hobane, A.P., 1996, The Commercialisation of Gonimbrasia Belina in Bulilima- Mangwe District: Problems and Prospects, Unpublished MPhil thesis, Harare: Centre for Applied Social Sciences.
IRIN, 2011, ‘Mali: Culture of migration faces tough new realities’, (http:// www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=61471 - accessed on 15/11/11).
Kandel, W. and Massey, D., 2000, ‘The culture Mexican migration: A theoretical and empirical analysis’, Social Forces, 80 (3): 981-1004.
Katz, D., 1960, ‘The functional approach to the study of attitudes’, Public Opinion Quarterly, 24 (2): 163-204.
Keegan, T., 1986, ‘Trade, accumulation and impoverishment: Mercantile capital and the economic transformation of Lesotho and the conquered territory, 1870-1920’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 12 (2): 196-216.
Kimble, J., 1999, Migrant Labour and Colonial Rule Basutoland, 1890 -1930, Grahamstown, South Africa: Institute of Social and Economic Research, Rhodes University. Mangezvo, P.L., n.d., ‘Debating notions of “triumphant return” of male migrants from Zimbabwe’, in R. Mate, ed., Migration from Zimbabwe: Understanding migration in a context of an African political crisis, Consolidated report of the Zimbabwe national working group, submitted to the Council for the Development of Social Science in Africa (CODESRIA), Dakar.
Maphosa, F., 2004, ‘The impact of remittances from Zimbabweans working in South Africa on rural livelihoods in the Southern districts of Zimbabwe’, Research report submitted to the Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA), (http://www.Livelihoods.org/hot_topics/ migration/remittancesindex.html
Maphosa, F., 2011, ‘Multiple Involvements or Multiple Exclusions: Transnational Experiences of Communities on the Zimbabwe-South Africa Borderlands’, Addis Ababa, OSSREA.
Markham, C., and Mothibeli, M., ‘The 1987 Mineworkers’ Strike’, South African Labour Bulletin, 13: 58-75.
Massey, D.S., Arango, J., Hugo, G., Ali, K., Pellerino, A. and Taylor, J. E., 1993, ‘Theories of international migration: A review and appraisal’, Population and Development Review, 3:431-466.
McNamara, K., 1995, ‘Gate politics: Competing interests in mine hostels’, in Crush, J. & James, W., eds., Crossing Boundaries: Mine Migrancy in a Democratic South Africa, Cape Town: Creda Press.
Mills, D. & Sswakiryanga, R., 2005, ‘No Romance without Finance: Commodities, Massculinities & Relationships amongst Kampala Students’, in Cornwall A., ed., Readings in Gender in Africa, Indiana, Indiana University Press.
Monyau, M.K., 2000, ‘Macroeconomic impact and prospects of downscaling in the RSA mining industry’, Central Bank of Lesotho, Maseru.
Morojele, R. N., 2004, Determining the attitudes/perceptions of retrenched Lesotho migrant labourers from the RSA mining industries regarding education using their career life histories, Unpublished MPhil Thesis, submitted to The University of Stellenbosch, South Africa.
Murray, C., 1981, Families Divided: The Impact of Migrant labour in Lesotho, Johannesburg: Ravan.
Phillip, K., 1995, ‘The NUM job creation and development programme’, in Crush, J. & James, W., eds., Crossing Boundaries: Mine migrancy in a democratic South Africa, Cape Town, Creda Press.
Schapera, I., 1947, Migrant Labour and Tribal Life, London: Oxford University.
Seidman, G.W., 1993, ‘Shafted: The social impact of downscaling on the Free State Goldfields’, South African Sociological Review, 5, 2: 14-34.
Thabane, M. and Guy, J., 1984, ‘Unemployment and casual labour in Maseru: The impact of changing employment strategies on migrant labourers in Lesotho’, Cape Town, Carnegie Conference paper, no. 124.
Thoahlane, T. & Coplan, D., 1995, ‘Motherless households, landless farms: employment patterns among Lesotho migrants’, in Crush, J. & James, W., eds., Crossing Boundaries: Mine Migrancy in a democratic South Africa, Cape Town: Creda Press.
Thompson, E.H. Jr and Pleck, J. H., 1987, ‘The structure of male role norms’, in Kimmel, S.M., ed., Changing Men: New Direction in Research on Men and Masculinity, London: Sage Publications.
Timmerman, C., 2008, ‘Marriage in a culture of migration: Emirdag marrying into Flanders’, European Review, 16 (4): 585-594.
UNICEF, June 2001, ‘Child Workers in the Shadow of Aids: Listening to the Children’, Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Office, Nairobi.
Weyl, U., 1991, Labour Migration and Underdevelopment in Malawi: Late 19th Century to Mid 1970s, Masvingo: Belmont Printers.