5 - Taxation, Migration and the Creation of a Working Class in Kenya
Corresponding Author(s) : Isaac Tarus
Africa Development,
Vol. 30 No. 4 (2005): Africa Development
Abstract
Various scholars have questioned the often-stated migrant labour-taxation causal nexus. They have rejected the overworked stereotype that Africans entered la bour service to pay taxes, obtain more livestock and marry more wives. This paper argues that migration was a historical aspect of social change, because migrant labourers made deliberate economic choices on whether to pay taxes either by exploiting available resources or by migrating. Particular analysis is made of the extent to which taxation engendered the creation of a working class cadre. The case of the settler economies of South Africa, Rhodesia, Algeria and Kenya in particular revolved around the transition of the rural population from a pastoral and cultivator economy to a truncated working class in the Thompsonian paradigm. They were not merely, as Atieno-Odhiambo declares, 'cogs in the wheel of capitalism'. Among other reasons, Africans went out in search of paid work for the fact that force was used when their livestock were confiscated unless they left to perform wage labour. Many others went out in search of employment for the independence and self-sufficiency it gave them. The paper argues that a number of young people went out voluntarily to obtain money which they used to pay taxes but also to acquire certain material possessions such as livestock, blankets, clothes and other paraphernalia, and to be come entrepreneurs. As a consequence of all these, we have the emergence of a working class cadre that has become an important life trajectory in Kenya.
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- A.rrighi, Giovanni, 1970, 'Labour Studies in Historical Perspective: A Study of
- the Proletarianization of the African Peasantry in Rhodesia', Journal of Development Studies. Vol. 6 No.3,April.
- A.tieno-Odhiambo, E. S., 1974, 'The Rise and Decline of the Kenya Peasant, 1888- 1922', in The
- Paradox of Collaboration and Other Essays, Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau, pp. 90-100.
- A.tieno-Odhiambo, E. S., 2000, 'Mugo's Prophecy', B. A. Ogot and W. R. Ochieng(eds.) Kenya: The Making of a Nation, 1895-1995, Maseno: Maseno University. pp. 9-1O.
- A.tieno-Odhiambo, E. S., 2002, "'Kula Raha": Gendered Discourses and the Contours ofLeisure in
- Nairobi, 1946-1963 ', Andrew Burton (ed.), The Urban Experience in Eastern Aji·ica, c. 1750-2000,
- Nairobi: British Institute in Eastern Africa.
- A.tkins, Keletso E., 1993, The Moon is dead! Give us our money!: The Cultural Origins of an African
- Work Ethic, Natal, South Afi·ica, 1853-1900, London: Heinemann. p. 29.
- Belfield, Henry, 1913, East African Standard, 8 February 1913, quoted in Clayton, A., and Savage,
- D., Government and Labour in Kenya, 1895-1963, London: Frank Cass. p. 41.
- Bennett, George, 1963, Kenya: A Political History, London: OUP p. 34. Berman, Bruce, 1990, Contrai
- and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of
- Domination, London: James Currey. pp. 55-57.
- Bundy, Colin, 1979, The Rise and Fall of the South African Peasantry, Berkeley and London:
- Heinemann and University ofCalifomia Press. p. 135
- lough, Marshall, 1990, Fighting Two Sides: Kenyan Chiefs and Politicians, 1918-1940, Boulder:
- University of Colorado.
- Harlow, V. and Chilver, E.M., (eds.), 1965, Histo,y of East Af,-ica, vol. ii, Oxford: OUP.
- Kanogo, Tabitha, -1987, Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau, Ohio: Ohio University Press.
- Kitching, Gavin, 1980, Class and Economie Change in Kenya: The Making of an African Petite
- Bourgeoisie, 1905-1970, Princeton: Yale University Press. Kitching, Gavin, 1987, Land, Livestock
- and Leadership: The Rise of the Ajdcan Petit-Bourgeois in Kenya, 1905-1918, Nairobi: EastAfrican
- Literature Bureau.
- Lacey, Marian, 1981, Workingfor Boroko: Origins ofa Coercive Labour System in South Africa,
- Johannesburg: Ravan.
- Leys, Colin, 1975, Underdevelopment in Kenya: The Political Economy of Neo Colonialism, 1964-1975,
- London: Heinemann.
- Manchuelle, François, 1997, Willing Migrants: Soninke Labor Diasporas, 1848- 1960, London: James
- Currey.
- Marris, Peter and Somerset, Anthony, I 973, African Businessmen: A Study of Entrepreneurship and
- Development in Kenya, London.
- A.rrighi, Giovanni, 1970, 'Labour Studies in Historical Perspective: A Study of
- the Proletarianization of the African Peasantry in Rhodesia', Journal of Development Studies. Vol.
- No.3, April.
- A.tieno-Odhiambo, E. S., 1974, 'The Rise and Decline of the Kenya Peasant, 1888- 1922', in The
- Paradox of Collaboration and Other Essays, Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau, pp. 90-100.
- A.tieno-Odhiambo, E. S., 2000, 'Mugo's Prophecy', B. A. Ogot and W. R. Ochieng(eds.) Kenya: The Making of a Nation, 1895-1995, Maseno: Maseno University. pp. 9-1O.
- A.tieno-Odhiambo, E. S., 2002, "'Kula Raha": Gendered Discourses and the Contours ofLeisure in
- Nairobi, 1946-1963 ', Andrew Burton (ed.), The Urban Experience in Eastern Aji·ica, c. 1750-2000,
- Nairobi: British Institute in Eastern Africa.
- A.tkins, Keletso E., 1993, The Moon is dead! Give us our money!: The Cultural Origins of an African
- Work Ethic, Natal, South Afi·ica, 1853-1900, London: Heinemann. p. 29.
- Belfield, Henry, 1913, East African Standard, 8 February 1913, quoted in Clayton, A., and Savage,
- D., Government and Labour in Kenya, 1895-1963, London: Frank Cass. p. 41.
- Bennett, George, 1963, Kenya: A Political History, London: OUP p. 34. Berman, Bruce, 1990, Contrai
- and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of
- Domination, London: James Currey. pp. 55-57.
- Bundy, Colin, 1979, The Rise and Fall of the South African Peasantry, Berkeley and London:
- Heinemann and University ofCalifomia Press. p. 135
- lough, Marshall, 1990, Fighting Two Sides: Kenyan Chiefs and Politicians, 1918-1940, Boulder:
- University of Colorado.
- Harlow, V. and Chilver, E.M., (eds.), 1965, Histo,y of East Af,-ica, vol. ii, Oxford: OUP.
- Kanogo, Tabitha, -1987, Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau, Ohio: Ohio University Press.
- Kitching, Gavin, 1980, Class and Economie Change in Kenya: The Making of an African Petite
- Bourgeoisie, 1905-1970, Princeton: Yale University Press. Kitching, Gavin, 1987, Land, Livestock
- and Leadership: The Rise of the Ajdcan Petit-Bourgeois in Kenya, 1905-1918, Nairobi: EastAfrican
- Literature Bureau.
- Lacey, Marian, 1981, Workingfor Boroko: Origins ofa Coercive Labour System in South Africa,
- Johannesburg: Ravan.
- Leys, Colin, 1975, Underdevelopment in Kenya: The Political Economy of Neo Colonialism, 1964-1975,
- London: Heinemann.
- Manchuelle, François, 1997, Willing Migrants: Soninke Labor Diasporas, 1848- 1960, London: James Currey.
- Marris, Peter and Somerset, Anthony, I 973, African Businessmen: A Study of Entrepreneurship and
- Development in Kenya, London.
References
A.rrighi, Giovanni, 1970, 'Labour Studies in Historical Perspective: A Study of
the Proletarianization of the African Peasantry in Rhodesia', Journal of Development Studies. Vol. 6 No.3,April.
A.tieno-Odhiambo, E. S., 1974, 'The Rise and Decline of the Kenya Peasant, 1888- 1922', in The
Paradox of Collaboration and Other Essays, Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau, pp. 90-100.
A.tieno-Odhiambo, E. S., 2000, 'Mugo's Prophecy', B. A. Ogot and W. R. Ochieng(eds.) Kenya: The Making of a Nation, 1895-1995, Maseno: Maseno University. pp. 9-1O.
A.tieno-Odhiambo, E. S., 2002, "'Kula Raha": Gendered Discourses and the Contours ofLeisure in
Nairobi, 1946-1963 ', Andrew Burton (ed.), The Urban Experience in Eastern Aji·ica, c. 1750-2000,
Nairobi: British Institute in Eastern Africa.
A.tkins, Keletso E., 1993, The Moon is dead! Give us our money!: The Cultural Origins of an African
Work Ethic, Natal, South Afi·ica, 1853-1900, London: Heinemann. p. 29.
Belfield, Henry, 1913, East African Standard, 8 February 1913, quoted in Clayton, A., and Savage,
D., Government and Labour in Kenya, 1895-1963, London: Frank Cass. p. 41.
Bennett, George, 1963, Kenya: A Political History, London: OUP p. 34. Berman, Bruce, 1990, Contrai
and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of
Domination, London: James Currey. pp. 55-57.
Bundy, Colin, 1979, The Rise and Fall of the South African Peasantry, Berkeley and London:
Heinemann and University ofCalifomia Press. p. 135
lough, Marshall, 1990, Fighting Two Sides: Kenyan Chiefs and Politicians, 1918-1940, Boulder:
University of Colorado.
Harlow, V. and Chilver, E.M., (eds.), 1965, Histo,y of East Af,-ica, vol. ii, Oxford: OUP.
Kanogo, Tabitha, -1987, Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau, Ohio: Ohio University Press.
Kitching, Gavin, 1980, Class and Economie Change in Kenya: The Making of an African Petite
Bourgeoisie, 1905-1970, Princeton: Yale University Press. Kitching, Gavin, 1987, Land, Livestock
and Leadership: The Rise of the Ajdcan Petit-Bourgeois in Kenya, 1905-1918, Nairobi: EastAfrican
Literature Bureau.
Lacey, Marian, 1981, Workingfor Boroko: Origins ofa Coercive Labour System in South Africa,
Johannesburg: Ravan.
Leys, Colin, 1975, Underdevelopment in Kenya: The Political Economy of Neo Colonialism, 1964-1975,
London: Heinemann.
Manchuelle, François, 1997, Willing Migrants: Soninke Labor Diasporas, 1848- 1960, London: James
Currey.
Marris, Peter and Somerset, Anthony, I 973, African Businessmen: A Study of Entrepreneurship and
Development in Kenya, London.
A.rrighi, Giovanni, 1970, 'Labour Studies in Historical Perspective: A Study of
the Proletarianization of the African Peasantry in Rhodesia', Journal of Development Studies. Vol.
No.3, April.
A.tieno-Odhiambo, E. S., 1974, 'The Rise and Decline of the Kenya Peasant, 1888- 1922', in The
Paradox of Collaboration and Other Essays, Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau, pp. 90-100.
A.tieno-Odhiambo, E. S., 2000, 'Mugo's Prophecy', B. A. Ogot and W. R. Ochieng(eds.) Kenya: The Making of a Nation, 1895-1995, Maseno: Maseno University. pp. 9-1O.
A.tieno-Odhiambo, E. S., 2002, "'Kula Raha": Gendered Discourses and the Contours ofLeisure in
Nairobi, 1946-1963 ', Andrew Burton (ed.), The Urban Experience in Eastern Aji·ica, c. 1750-2000,
Nairobi: British Institute in Eastern Africa.
A.tkins, Keletso E., 1993, The Moon is dead! Give us our money!: The Cultural Origins of an African
Work Ethic, Natal, South Afi·ica, 1853-1900, London: Heinemann. p. 29.
Belfield, Henry, 1913, East African Standard, 8 February 1913, quoted in Clayton, A., and Savage,
D., Government and Labour in Kenya, 1895-1963, London: Frank Cass. p. 41.
Bennett, George, 1963, Kenya: A Political History, London: OUP p. 34. Berman, Bruce, 1990, Contrai
and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of
Domination, London: James Currey. pp. 55-57.
Bundy, Colin, 1979, The Rise and Fall of the South African Peasantry, Berkeley and London:
Heinemann and University ofCalifomia Press. p. 135
lough, Marshall, 1990, Fighting Two Sides: Kenyan Chiefs and Politicians, 1918-1940, Boulder:
University of Colorado.
Harlow, V. and Chilver, E.M., (eds.), 1965, Histo,y of East Af,-ica, vol. ii, Oxford: OUP.
Kanogo, Tabitha, -1987, Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau, Ohio: Ohio University Press.
Kitching, Gavin, 1980, Class and Economie Change in Kenya: The Making of an African Petite
Bourgeoisie, 1905-1970, Princeton: Yale University Press. Kitching, Gavin, 1987, Land, Livestock
and Leadership: The Rise of the Ajdcan Petit-Bourgeois in Kenya, 1905-1918, Nairobi: EastAfrican
Literature Bureau.
Lacey, Marian, 1981, Workingfor Boroko: Origins ofa Coercive Labour System in South Africa,
Johannesburg: Ravan.
Leys, Colin, 1975, Underdevelopment in Kenya: The Political Economy of Neo Colonialism, 1964-1975,
London: Heinemann.
Manchuelle, François, 1997, Willing Migrants: Soninke Labor Diasporas, 1848- 1960, London: James Currey.
Marris, Peter and Somerset, Anthony, I 973, African Businessmen: A Study of Entrepreneurship and
Development in Kenya, London.