13 - Food Security in Epworth, Zimbabwe: Leveraging Rural-urban Linkages for Resilient Food Systems in Peri-urban Areas
Africa Development,
Vol. 47 No. 3 (2022): Africa Development: Special Issue on Agrarian Change, Food Security, Migration and Sustainable Development in Senegal and Zimbabwe
Abstract
In Zimbabwe, persistent political and economic problems have instigated and exacerbated food insecurity over the past two decades. Low food production, combined with high levels of inflation, a stagnating economy and increasing food prices, have worsened the plight of consumers in the country. High levels of poverty in the rural areas continue to influence rural-urban migrations, but most migrants to the city generally face deprivation, especially in peri-urban areas such as Epworth, where most migrants prefer to settle owing to its semi-formal nature. How then, do the poor in these peri-urban areas feed themselves amidst high urban poverty levels? Using data collected from different surveys between 2008 and 2016, the article explores four major strategies adopted by households to cope with food insecurity: reliance on urban farming; dependence on rural remittances; utilisation by urban residents of employment opportunities in the surrounding farms; and participation in, as well as dependence on, informality. A more nuanced appreciation of these survival strategies will engender an informed theoretical understanding on how to leverage these linkages to create resilient food systems in peri-urban areas.
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- Bratton, M., and Masunungure, E. V., 2018, Public Attitudes Towards Zimbabwe’s 2018 Elections: Downbeat Yet Hopeful, Afrobarometer Policy Paper No. 47, http://afrobarometer.org/sites/default/files/publications/Documents percent20de percent20politiques/ab_r7_policypaperno47_public_attitudes_toward_zimbabwe_2018_election_1dfAccessed 22 May 2019.
- Bryceson, D. F., 2006, Fragile Cities: Fundamentals of Urban Life in East and Southern Africa, in Bryceson, D. F. and Potts, D., eds, African Urban Economics: Viability, Vitality or Vitiation, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
- Butcher, C., 1988, Epworth: A Review of the Densification Policy, Report prepared for the Epworth Local Board, Harare.
- Central Statistical Office, 2013. Census 2011; Zimbabwe Preliminary Report, Central Census Office, Harare.
- Chikwete-Biti, B., Mudimu, P., Nyama, G. M. and Jera, T., 2012, Developing an Informal Settlement Upgrading Protocol in Zimbabwe: The Epworth Story, Environment & Urbanization, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 131–148.
- Chimhowu, A., 2009, Moving Forward in Zimbabwe: Reducing Poverty and Promoting Productivity, Manchester Brooks Poverty Institute.
- Chirisa, I., 2013, Epworth in Zimbabwe: An Analytical Approach to the Concepts of Inclusivity, Housing and Stewardship, The Built and Human Environment Review, Vol. 6, pp. 18–28.
- Chisvo, M., 2000, Reaping The Whirlwind: Economic Liberalisation and Food Security in Zimbabwe, London, UK: Catholic Institute for International Relations (CIIR). Chitiyo, K., Vines, A., and Vandome, C., 2016, The Domestic and External Implications of Zimbabwe’s Economic Reform and Re-Engagement Agenda, Research Paper, Chatham House, https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/ default/files/publications/research/2016-09-08-zimbabwe-economic-reform-re-engagement chitiyo-vines-vandome-final.pdf Accessed 4 June 2019.
- Tawodzera: Food Security in Epworth, Zimbabwe 325
- Clemens, M., and Moss, T., 2005, Costs and Causes of Zimbabwe’s Crisis, Washington DC: Center for Global Development, https://www.cgdev.org/sites/default/ files/2918_file_Zimbabwe_Crisis.pdf Accessed 1 September 2019.
- Crush, J., and Frayne, B., 2009, The Invisible Crisis: Urban Food Security in Southern Africa, Urban Food Security Series Number 1, African Food Security Urban Network, Cape Town: Idasa.
- Davies, S., 1993, Are Coping Strategies a Cope-Out? IDS Bulletin, Vol. 24, No. 4. Dore, D., 2018, The Art of Creating Money: An Appraisal of Zimbabwe’s Economy, Johannesburg: Institute for Security Studies, https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/SAR-18-2.pdf Accessed 4 June 2019.
- Dzimiri, P., 2017, African Multilateral Responses to the Crisis in Zimbabwe: A Responsibility to Protect Perspective, Strategic Review for Southern Africa, Vol. 39, Issue 2, pp. 50–77.
- ENDA-ZW, 1994, Urban Agriculture in Harare, Report on IDRC-Supported Project, ENDA-Zimbabwe, Harare.
- Folke, C., Carpenter, S. R., Walker, B., Scheffer, M., Chapin, T. and Rockström, J., 2010.
- Resilience thinking: integrating resilience, adaptability and transformability, Ecology and Society, Vol. 15, No. 4, p. 20.
- Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2003, Trade Reforms and Food Security: Conceptualizing the Linkages, Rome: FAO, p. 313.
- Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2008, Soaring Food Prices: Facts, Perspectives, Impacts and Actions Required, Report on the Proceedings of the High-Level Conference on World Food Security: The Challenge of Climate and Bioenergy, 3–5 June, Rome.
- Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2008a, The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2008, Rome: FAO.
- Frayne, B., 2001, Survival of the Poorest: Food Security and Migration in Namibia, Unpublished PhD thesis, Queens’ University, Canada.
- Gelderblom, D., 2005, Limits to the Urbanization of Poverty in South Africa, Paper for IIS conference, Stockholm 5–9 July 2005.
- Holling, C., 1973, Resilience and Stability of Ecological Systems, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, Vol. 4, pp. 1–23.
- International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2012, in Field, C. B., Barros, V., Stocker, T. F., Qin, D., Dokken, D. J. and Ebi K. L., eds, Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation: A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge, UK and New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 582. Jamal, V., and Weeks, J., 1988, The Vanishing Rural-Urban Gap in sub-Saharan Africa, International Labour Review, Vol. 1, No. 27, p. 3.
- Kawewe, S. M., and Dibie, R., 2000, The Impact of Economic Structural Adjustment Programs (ESAPs) on Women and Children: Implications for Social Welfare in Zimbabwe, The Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, Vol. 27, Issue 4, Article 6, pp. 78–107.
- Africa Development, Volume XLVII, No. 3, 2022
- Kuhudzayi, P., and Mattos, B., 2018, A Model for Farmer Support in Zimbabwe— Opportunity for Change, https://agecon.unl.edu/cornhusker-economics/2018/ farmer-support-model-zimbabwe Accessed 25 May 2019.
- Masunungure, V. E., 2010, Voting for Change: The 29 March Harmonised Elections, Konrad Adenauer Foundation, http://www.kas. de/upload/dokumente/2010/05/ Defying_4.pdf.
- Mattes, R., Dulani, B., and Gyimah-Boadi, E. Africa’s Growth Dividend: Lived Poverty Drops Across Much of the Continent, Afrobarometer Policy Paper No. 29.
- Maxwell, D., 1998, The Political Economy of Urban Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa, FCND Discussion Paper Number 41, Washington DC: IFPRI.
- Maxwell, D., Watkins, B., Wheeler, R. and Collins, G., 2003, The Coping Strategies Index: A Tool for Rapidly Monitoring Food Security in Emergencies. Field Methods Manual, Nairobi: Care and WFP.
- Mbiba, M., 1995, Urban Agriculture in Zimbabwe: Implications for Urban Agricultural Policy, London, UK: Ashgate Publishing.
- Mehta, D., 2000, Urbanization of Poverty, Habitat Debate, Vol. 6, No. 4, http://www.unhabitat.org/mdg/documents/global/Vol6_No4_urbanization Accessed 11 May 2018.
- Mlambo, A. S., 2017, From an Industrial Powerhouse to a Nation of Vendors: Over Two Decades of Economic Decline and Deindustrialisation in Zimbabwe 1990–2015, Journal of Developing Societies, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 99–125.
- Moore, D., 2014, Death or Dearth of Democracy in Zimbabwe? Africa Spectrum, Vol. 49, No. 1, pp. 101–114.
- Moseley, W. G., 2001, Monitoring Urban Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa,African Geographical Review, Vol. 21, pp. 81–90.
- Muchadenyika, D., 2020, Seeking Urban Transformation: Alternative Urban Futures in Zimbabwe, Harare: Weaver Press.
- Mugara, T., 2007, The Impact of Operation Murambatsvina (Clean Up) on Urban Livelihoods of Informal Vendors in Harare, Zimbabwe, Paper prepared for the Living on the Margins Conference in Stellenbosch, Cape Town, South Africa, 26–28 March.
- Mupedziswa, R., 1997, Empowerment or Repression? ESAP and Children in Zimbabwe, Gweru: Mambo Press.
- Naidoo, P., 2019, Zimbabwe’s Surging Inflation Is Set to Slow as State Acts, Bloomberg, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-03-15/record-zimbabwe-annual-inflation-set-to-slow-as-government-acts Accessed 3 June 2019.
- Njoh, A. J., 2003, Urbanization and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa’, Cities, Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 167–174.
- Owuor, S. O., 2005, Coping with Urban Poverty: A Case Study of Rural Farming by Urban Households in Nakuru, Kenya, Hekima—Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 84–101.
- Potter, R. B. and Unwin, T., 1995, Urban-Rural Interaction: Physical Form and Political Process in the Third World, Cities, Vol. 12, No 1, pp. 67–73.
References
Bratton, M., and Masunungure, E. V., 2018, Public Attitudes Towards Zimbabwe’s 2018 Elections: Downbeat Yet Hopeful, Afrobarometer Policy Paper No. 47, http://afrobarometer.org/sites/default/files/publications/Documents percent20de percent20politiques/ab_r7_policypaperno47_public_attitudes_toward_zimbabwe_2018_election_1dfAccessed 22 May 2019.
Bryceson, D. F., 2006, Fragile Cities: Fundamentals of Urban Life in East and Southern Africa, in Bryceson, D. F. and Potts, D., eds, African Urban Economics: Viability, Vitality or Vitiation, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Butcher, C., 1988, Epworth: A Review of the Densification Policy, Report prepared for the Epworth Local Board, Harare.
Central Statistical Office, 2013. Census 2011; Zimbabwe Preliminary Report, Central Census Office, Harare.
Chikwete-Biti, B., Mudimu, P., Nyama, G. M. and Jera, T., 2012, Developing an Informal Settlement Upgrading Protocol in Zimbabwe: The Epworth Story, Environment & Urbanization, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 131–148.
Chimhowu, A., 2009, Moving Forward in Zimbabwe: Reducing Poverty and Promoting Productivity, Manchester Brooks Poverty Institute.
Chirisa, I., 2013, Epworth in Zimbabwe: An Analytical Approach to the Concepts of Inclusivity, Housing and Stewardship, The Built and Human Environment Review, Vol. 6, pp. 18–28.
Chisvo, M., 2000, Reaping The Whirlwind: Economic Liberalisation and Food Security in Zimbabwe, London, UK: Catholic Institute for International Relations (CIIR). Chitiyo, K., Vines, A., and Vandome, C., 2016, The Domestic and External Implications of Zimbabwe’s Economic Reform and Re-Engagement Agenda, Research Paper, Chatham House, https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/ default/files/publications/research/2016-09-08-zimbabwe-economic-reform-re-engagement chitiyo-vines-vandome-final.pdf Accessed 4 June 2019.
Tawodzera: Food Security in Epworth, Zimbabwe 325
Clemens, M., and Moss, T., 2005, Costs and Causes of Zimbabwe’s Crisis, Washington DC: Center for Global Development, https://www.cgdev.org/sites/default/ files/2918_file_Zimbabwe_Crisis.pdf Accessed 1 September 2019.
Crush, J., and Frayne, B., 2009, The Invisible Crisis: Urban Food Security in Southern Africa, Urban Food Security Series Number 1, African Food Security Urban Network, Cape Town: Idasa.
Davies, S., 1993, Are Coping Strategies a Cope-Out? IDS Bulletin, Vol. 24, No. 4. Dore, D., 2018, The Art of Creating Money: An Appraisal of Zimbabwe’s Economy, Johannesburg: Institute for Security Studies, https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/SAR-18-2.pdf Accessed 4 June 2019.
Dzimiri, P., 2017, African Multilateral Responses to the Crisis in Zimbabwe: A Responsibility to Protect Perspective, Strategic Review for Southern Africa, Vol. 39, Issue 2, pp. 50–77.
ENDA-ZW, 1994, Urban Agriculture in Harare, Report on IDRC-Supported Project, ENDA-Zimbabwe, Harare.
Folke, C., Carpenter, S. R., Walker, B., Scheffer, M., Chapin, T. and Rockström, J., 2010.
Resilience thinking: integrating resilience, adaptability and transformability, Ecology and Society, Vol. 15, No. 4, p. 20.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2003, Trade Reforms and Food Security: Conceptualizing the Linkages, Rome: FAO, p. 313.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2008, Soaring Food Prices: Facts, Perspectives, Impacts and Actions Required, Report on the Proceedings of the High-Level Conference on World Food Security: The Challenge of Climate and Bioenergy, 3–5 June, Rome.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2008a, The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2008, Rome: FAO.
Frayne, B., 2001, Survival of the Poorest: Food Security and Migration in Namibia, Unpublished PhD thesis, Queens’ University, Canada.
Gelderblom, D., 2005, Limits to the Urbanization of Poverty in South Africa, Paper for IIS conference, Stockholm 5–9 July 2005.
Holling, C., 1973, Resilience and Stability of Ecological Systems, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, Vol. 4, pp. 1–23.
International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2012, in Field, C. B., Barros, V., Stocker, T. F., Qin, D., Dokken, D. J. and Ebi K. L., eds, Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation: A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge, UK and New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 582. Jamal, V., and Weeks, J., 1988, The Vanishing Rural-Urban Gap in sub-Saharan Africa, International Labour Review, Vol. 1, No. 27, p. 3.
Kawewe, S. M., and Dibie, R., 2000, The Impact of Economic Structural Adjustment Programs (ESAPs) on Women and Children: Implications for Social Welfare in Zimbabwe, The Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, Vol. 27, Issue 4, Article 6, pp. 78–107.
Africa Development, Volume XLVII, No. 3, 2022
Kuhudzayi, P., and Mattos, B., 2018, A Model for Farmer Support in Zimbabwe— Opportunity for Change, https://agecon.unl.edu/cornhusker-economics/2018/ farmer-support-model-zimbabwe Accessed 25 May 2019.
Masunungure, V. E., 2010, Voting for Change: The 29 March Harmonised Elections, Konrad Adenauer Foundation, http://www.kas. de/upload/dokumente/2010/05/ Defying_4.pdf.
Mattes, R., Dulani, B., and Gyimah-Boadi, E. Africa’s Growth Dividend: Lived Poverty Drops Across Much of the Continent, Afrobarometer Policy Paper No. 29.
Maxwell, D., 1998, The Political Economy of Urban Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa, FCND Discussion Paper Number 41, Washington DC: IFPRI.
Maxwell, D., Watkins, B., Wheeler, R. and Collins, G., 2003, The Coping Strategies Index: A Tool for Rapidly Monitoring Food Security in Emergencies. Field Methods Manual, Nairobi: Care and WFP.
Mbiba, M., 1995, Urban Agriculture in Zimbabwe: Implications for Urban Agricultural Policy, London, UK: Ashgate Publishing.
Mehta, D., 2000, Urbanization of Poverty, Habitat Debate, Vol. 6, No. 4, http://www.unhabitat.org/mdg/documents/global/Vol6_No4_urbanization Accessed 11 May 2018.
Mlambo, A. S., 2017, From an Industrial Powerhouse to a Nation of Vendors: Over Two Decades of Economic Decline and Deindustrialisation in Zimbabwe 1990–2015, Journal of Developing Societies, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 99–125.
Moore, D., 2014, Death or Dearth of Democracy in Zimbabwe? Africa Spectrum, Vol. 49, No. 1, pp. 101–114.
Moseley, W. G., 2001, Monitoring Urban Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa,African Geographical Review, Vol. 21, pp. 81–90.
Muchadenyika, D., 2020, Seeking Urban Transformation: Alternative Urban Futures in Zimbabwe, Harare: Weaver Press.
Mugara, T., 2007, The Impact of Operation Murambatsvina (Clean Up) on Urban Livelihoods of Informal Vendors in Harare, Zimbabwe, Paper prepared for the Living on the Margins Conference in Stellenbosch, Cape Town, South Africa, 26–28 March.
Mupedziswa, R., 1997, Empowerment or Repression? ESAP and Children in Zimbabwe, Gweru: Mambo Press.
Naidoo, P., 2019, Zimbabwe’s Surging Inflation Is Set to Slow as State Acts, Bloomberg, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-03-15/record-zimbabwe-annual-inflation-set-to-slow-as-government-acts Accessed 3 June 2019.
Njoh, A. J., 2003, Urbanization and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa’, Cities, Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 167–174.
Owuor, S. O., 2005, Coping with Urban Poverty: A Case Study of Rural Farming by Urban Households in Nakuru, Kenya, Hekima—Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 84–101.
Potter, R. B. and Unwin, T., 1995, Urban-Rural Interaction: Physical Form and Political Process in the Third World, Cities, Vol. 12, No 1, pp. 67–73.