5 - Beyond Poverty: Why are Some Children more Vulnerable to Commercial Sexual Exploitation than Others?
Corresponding Author(s) : Rejoice Makaudze
Africa Development,
Vol. 48 No. 3 (2023): Africa Development
Abstract
The commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC) is a conscience- wrenching problem that has become a pandemic feature of Zimbabwean society. Studies on CSEC have invested significant attention on identifying the factors that cause and perpetuate CSEC. There is a general consensus among studies that poverty is the main cause of CSEC. However, it is argued in this study that while the singular, dominant and generalised narrative that poverty is the main cause of CSEC is helpful, its deficiency is that it does not explain why some children are more vulnerable to CSEC than others. In order to address this question, this study examines how individual, family and societal risk factors cumulate in peculiar ways to make some children more vulnerable to CSE than others.
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- Albanese, J., 2007, ‘Commercial sexual exploitation of children: what do we know and what do we do about it?’, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice.
- Bhana, D., 2017, ‘Childhood sexualities in Africa: agency and vulnerability’, in Y. Ofosu-Kusi, ed., Children’s Agency and Development in African Societies, Oxford: African Books Collective. pp. 65–76.
- Bang, B., Baker, P.L., Carpinteri, A., and Van Hasselt, V.B., 2014, Commercial Exploitation of Children, Cham: Springer.
- Bordonaro, L.I., 2012, ‘Agency does not mean freedom: Cape Verdean street children and the politics of children’s agency’, Children’s Geographies, Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 413–26.
- Bordonaro, L.I., and Payne, R., 2012, ‘Ambiguous agency: critical perspectives on social interventions with children and youth in Africa’. Children’s Geographies, Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 365–72.
- Bourke, R. and Loveridge, J., 2014, ‘Exploring informed consent and dissent through children’s participation in educational research’, International Journal of Research & Method in Education, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 151–65.
- Campbell, C., and Mannell, J., 2016, ‘Conceptualising the agency of highly marginalised women: Intimate partner violence in extreme settings’, Global Public Health, Vol. 11, No. 1–2, pp. 1–16.
- Chase, E., and Statham, J., 2004, ‘The commercial sexual exploitation of children and young people: an overview of key literature and data’, Thomas Coram Research Unit Institute of Education, University of London.
- Christensen, P., and James, A., 2008, ‘Introduction: researching children and childhood cultures of communication’, in P. Christensen and A. James, eds., Researching with Children: Perspectives and Practices, Second Edition, London and New York, NY: Routledge. pp. xx.
- ECPAT, 2014, ‘The commercial sexual exploitation of children in Africa: developments, progress, challenges and recommended strategies’, ECPAT International, Bangkok.
- Estes, R.J., and Weiner, N.A., 2005, ‘The commercial sexual exploitation of children in the United States’, in S.W. Cooper, R. Estes, A. Giardino, N. Kellog and V. Vieth, eds., Medical, Legal, and Social Science Aspects of Child Sexual Exploitation: A Comprehensive Review of Pornography, Prostitution, and Internet Crimes, St. Louis, MO: G. W. Medical Publishing, Inc. pp. xx.
- Graham, A., Powell, M., Taylor, N., Anderson, D., and Fitzgerald, R., 2013, Ethical Research Involving Children, Florence: UNICEF Office of Research Innocenti.
- Hoot, J., Tadesse, S., and Abdella, R., 2006, ‘Voices seldom heard: child prostitutes in Ethiopia’, Journal of Children & Poverty, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 129–39.
- Hounmenou, C., and Her, W., 2017, ‘Distinctiveness in the commercial sexual exploitation of children in sub-Saharan Africa: a review of the literature’, Journal of Human Trafficking, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 298–326.
- ILO (International Labour Organization), 2001, ‘Investigating the worst forms of child labour No. 12. Tanzania: children in prostitution:aA rapid assessment’, Geneva. King, N.M.P., and Churchill, L.R., 2000, ‘Ethical principles guiding research on child and adolescent subjects’, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, Vol. 15, No. 7, pp. 710–24.
- Laws, S., and Mann, G., 2004, So You Want to Involve Children in Research? A Toolkit Supporting Children’s Meaningful and Ethical Participation in Research Relating to Violence Against Children, Stockholm: Save the Children Sweden.
- Manyeli, T.F., 2012, ‘Building resilience in child-headed households: an exploration of the integrated community home-based care model in maseru district, Lesotho’, in Y. Ofosu-Kusi, Y., ed., Children’s Agency and Development in African Societies, Oxford: African Books Collective. pp. 93–106.
- Mafirakureva, G., 2019, 18 April, ‘Parly committees probe Chiredzi child prostitution’, Newsday, 18 April
- Mishna, F., Antle, B.J., and Regehr, C., 2004, ‘Tapping the perspectives of children: emerging ethical issues in qualitative research’ Qualitative Social Work, Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 449–68.
- Moosa, S., and Bhana, D., 2019, ‘Men teaching young children: “you can never be too sure what their intentions might be”’, Oxford Review of Education, Vol. 46, No. 2, pp. 169–84.
- Morris, A., Hegarty, K., and Humphreys, C., 2012, ‘Ethical and safe: research with children about domestic violence’, Research Ethics, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 125–39.
- Morrow, V., and Richards, M., 1996, ‘The ethics of social research with children: an overview’, Children and Society, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 90–105.
- Mupfumira, P., 2017, 4 October, ‘Recorded commercial child sexual exploitation in Harare’. Ministerial Statement, National Assembly.
- Netsianda, M., 2017, ‘Truckers fuel child sex work’, The Chronicle, 19 April.
- Ofosu-Kusi, Y., ed., 2017a, ‘Establishing a foothold in the informal economy: children’s dreams, agency and street life in Ghana’, in Y. Ofosu-Kusi, ed., Children’s Agency and Development in African Societies, Oxford: African Books Collective. pp. 15–32.
- Ofosu-Kusi, Y., ed., 2017b, ‘Introduction: children’s agency and development in African societies’, in Y. Ofosu-Kusi, ed., Children’s Agency and Development in African Societies, Oxford: African Books Collective. pp. 1–14.
- Palmer, T., and Stacey, L., 2002, Stolen childhood: Barnardo’s Work with Children Abused through Prostitution, New York, NY: Barnardo’s.
- Perschler-Desai, V., 2010, ‘Childhood on the market: teenage prostitution in Southern Africa’, African Security Review, Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 1–10.
- Pittaway, E., Bartolomei, l., and Hugman, R., 2010, ‘“Stop stealing our stories”: the ethics of research with vulnerable groups’, Journal of Human Rights Practice, Vol. 2, No. 2., pp 229–51.
- Rittenhouse, R.H., and Felicini, E., 2015, ‘Ethical issues of researching sexual exploitation of children with victims, survivors and those at risk’, Researching the sexual exploitation of children: challenges and methodologies of data collection, ECPAT International Journal, No. 10, pp. 22–35.
- Ruiz-Casares, M., and Thompson, J., 2016, ‘Obtaining meaningful informed consent: preliminary results of a study to develop visual informed consent forms with children’, Children’s Geographies, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 35–45.
- Twum-Danso, A., 2004, ‘Involving children and young people in research and consultations: ethical guidelines from a CSEC perspective’, ECPAT International, unpublished report.
- Walker-Rodriguez, A., and Hill, R., 2011, ‘Human sex trafficking’, FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, Vol. 80, pp. 1–9.
- ZNCWC (Zimbabwe National Council for the Welfare of Children), 2014, ‘Young women in commercial sexual exploitation along two transport corridors in Zimbabwe: causes, initiation prevalence and use of HIV and social services’.
References
Albanese, J., 2007, ‘Commercial sexual exploitation of children: what do we know and what do we do about it?’, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice.
Bhana, D., 2017, ‘Childhood sexualities in Africa: agency and vulnerability’, in Y. Ofosu-Kusi, ed., Children’s Agency and Development in African Societies, Oxford: African Books Collective. pp. 65–76.
Bang, B., Baker, P.L., Carpinteri, A., and Van Hasselt, V.B., 2014, Commercial Exploitation of Children, Cham: Springer.
Bordonaro, L.I., 2012, ‘Agency does not mean freedom: Cape Verdean street children and the politics of children’s agency’, Children’s Geographies, Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 413–26.
Bordonaro, L.I., and Payne, R., 2012, ‘Ambiguous agency: critical perspectives on social interventions with children and youth in Africa’. Children’s Geographies, Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 365–72.
Bourke, R. and Loveridge, J., 2014, ‘Exploring informed consent and dissent through children’s participation in educational research’, International Journal of Research & Method in Education, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 151–65.
Campbell, C., and Mannell, J., 2016, ‘Conceptualising the agency of highly marginalised women: Intimate partner violence in extreme settings’, Global Public Health, Vol. 11, No. 1–2, pp. 1–16.
Chase, E., and Statham, J., 2004, ‘The commercial sexual exploitation of children and young people: an overview of key literature and data’, Thomas Coram Research Unit Institute of Education, University of London.
Christensen, P., and James, A., 2008, ‘Introduction: researching children and childhood cultures of communication’, in P. Christensen and A. James, eds., Researching with Children: Perspectives and Practices, Second Edition, London and New York, NY: Routledge. pp. xx.
ECPAT, 2014, ‘The commercial sexual exploitation of children in Africa: developments, progress, challenges and recommended strategies’, ECPAT International, Bangkok.
Estes, R.J., and Weiner, N.A., 2005, ‘The commercial sexual exploitation of children in the United States’, in S.W. Cooper, R. Estes, A. Giardino, N. Kellog and V. Vieth, eds., Medical, Legal, and Social Science Aspects of Child Sexual Exploitation: A Comprehensive Review of Pornography, Prostitution, and Internet Crimes, St. Louis, MO: G. W. Medical Publishing, Inc. pp. xx.
Graham, A., Powell, M., Taylor, N., Anderson, D., and Fitzgerald, R., 2013, Ethical Research Involving Children, Florence: UNICEF Office of Research Innocenti.
Hoot, J., Tadesse, S., and Abdella, R., 2006, ‘Voices seldom heard: child prostitutes in Ethiopia’, Journal of Children & Poverty, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 129–39.
Hounmenou, C., and Her, W., 2017, ‘Distinctiveness in the commercial sexual exploitation of children in sub-Saharan Africa: a review of the literature’, Journal of Human Trafficking, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 298–326.
ILO (International Labour Organization), 2001, ‘Investigating the worst forms of child labour No. 12. Tanzania: children in prostitution:aA rapid assessment’, Geneva. King, N.M.P., and Churchill, L.R., 2000, ‘Ethical principles guiding research on child and adolescent subjects’, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, Vol. 15, No. 7, pp. 710–24.
Laws, S., and Mann, G., 2004, So You Want to Involve Children in Research? A Toolkit Supporting Children’s Meaningful and Ethical Participation in Research Relating to Violence Against Children, Stockholm: Save the Children Sweden.
Manyeli, T.F., 2012, ‘Building resilience in child-headed households: an exploration of the integrated community home-based care model in maseru district, Lesotho’, in Y. Ofosu-Kusi, Y., ed., Children’s Agency and Development in African Societies, Oxford: African Books Collective. pp. 93–106.
Mafirakureva, G., 2019, 18 April, ‘Parly committees probe Chiredzi child prostitution’, Newsday, 18 April
Mishna, F., Antle, B.J., and Regehr, C., 2004, ‘Tapping the perspectives of children: emerging ethical issues in qualitative research’ Qualitative Social Work, Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 449–68.
Moosa, S., and Bhana, D., 2019, ‘Men teaching young children: “you can never be too sure what their intentions might be”’, Oxford Review of Education, Vol. 46, No. 2, pp. 169–84.
Morris, A., Hegarty, K., and Humphreys, C., 2012, ‘Ethical and safe: research with children about domestic violence’, Research Ethics, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 125–39.
Morrow, V., and Richards, M., 1996, ‘The ethics of social research with children: an overview’, Children and Society, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 90–105.
Mupfumira, P., 2017, 4 October, ‘Recorded commercial child sexual exploitation in Harare’. Ministerial Statement, National Assembly.
Netsianda, M., 2017, ‘Truckers fuel child sex work’, The Chronicle, 19 April.
Ofosu-Kusi, Y., ed., 2017a, ‘Establishing a foothold in the informal economy: children’s dreams, agency and street life in Ghana’, in Y. Ofosu-Kusi, ed., Children’s Agency and Development in African Societies, Oxford: African Books Collective. pp. 15–32.
Ofosu-Kusi, Y., ed., 2017b, ‘Introduction: children’s agency and development in African societies’, in Y. Ofosu-Kusi, ed., Children’s Agency and Development in African Societies, Oxford: African Books Collective. pp. 1–14.
Palmer, T., and Stacey, L., 2002, Stolen childhood: Barnardo’s Work with Children Abused through Prostitution, New York, NY: Barnardo’s.
Perschler-Desai, V., 2010, ‘Childhood on the market: teenage prostitution in Southern Africa’, African Security Review, Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 1–10.
Pittaway, E., Bartolomei, l., and Hugman, R., 2010, ‘“Stop stealing our stories”: the ethics of research with vulnerable groups’, Journal of Human Rights Practice, Vol. 2, No. 2., pp 229–51.
Rittenhouse, R.H., and Felicini, E., 2015, ‘Ethical issues of researching sexual exploitation of children with victims, survivors and those at risk’, Researching the sexual exploitation of children: challenges and methodologies of data collection, ECPAT International Journal, No. 10, pp. 22–35.
Ruiz-Casares, M., and Thompson, J., 2016, ‘Obtaining meaningful informed consent: preliminary results of a study to develop visual informed consent forms with children’, Children’s Geographies, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 35–45.
Twum-Danso, A., 2004, ‘Involving children and young people in research and consultations: ethical guidelines from a CSEC perspective’, ECPAT International, unpublished report.
Walker-Rodriguez, A., and Hill, R., 2011, ‘Human sex trafficking’, FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, Vol. 80, pp. 1–9.
ZNCWC (Zimbabwe National Council for the Welfare of Children), 2014, ‘Young women in commercial sexual exploitation along two transport corridors in Zimbabwe: causes, initiation prevalence and use of HIV and social services’.