7 - The Evolution of Accountancy to Accountability: Acknowledging Africa’s Contribution
Corresponding Author(s) : Barry Ackers
Africa Development,
Vol. 43 No. 2 (2018): Africa Development
Abstract
While the primary objective of this article is to consider whether accounting has adequately responded to the expectations of contemporary society for increased corporate accountability, it simultaneously questions the Eurocentric view that attributes the development of contemporary accounting practices to Western development. Although the article links financial reporting practices to shareholder primacy, and corporate social responsibility and integrated reporting to shareholder theory, it also questions whether companies were truly embracing the fundamental principles of responsible corporate citizenship, suggesting that some companies may only be instrumentally providing non-financial reporting as a tool to entrench shareholder primacy. Without disregarding the contribution of the West to the development of accounting practices, it argues that Africa’s role, especially relating to early accounting developments, may have been deliberately ignored to perpetuate Eurocentric dogma.
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- Ackers, B., 2009, ‘Corporate social responsibility assurance: how do South African publicly listed companies compare?’, Meditari Accountancy Research 17 (2): 1–17.
- Ackers, B., 2014, ‘Corporate social responsibility reporting: what boards of directors need to know’, Corporate Board: Role, Duties and Composition 10 (3): 38–59.
- Ackers, B., 2017a, ‘Independent corporate social responsibility assurance: a response to soft laws, or influenced by company size and industry sector?’, International Journal of Disclosure and Governance 14 (4): 278–98.
- Ackers, B., 2017b, ‘The evolution of Corporate Social Responsibility assurance – a longitudinal study’, Social and Environmental Accountability Journal 37 (2): 97–117.
- Ackers, B. and Eccles, N.S., 2015, ‘Mandatory Corporate Social Responsibility assurance practices: the case of King III in South Africa’, Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal 28 (4): 515–50.
- Adams, C.A., 2015, ‘The international integrated reporting council: a call to action’, Critical Perspectives on Accounting 27 (1): 23–28.
- Amaeshi, K., and Idemudia, U., 2015, ‘Africapitalism: a management idea for business in Africa?’, Africa Journal of Management 1 (2): 210–23.
- Anand, A.I., 2005, Voluntary vs mandatory corporate governance: Towards an optimal regulatory framework, in American Law and Economics Association Annual Meetings, Paper 44, Bepress Legal Repository, http://law.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1537&context=alea, accessed 30 September 2016.
- Ansoff, I., 1965, Corporate Strategy, New York: McGraw Hill.
- Aras, G. and Crowther, D., 2008, ‘Corporate sustainability reporting: a study in disingenuity?’, Journal of Business Ethics 87 (1): 279–88.
- Archel, P., Fernández, M. and Larrinaga, C., 2008, ‘The organisational and operational boundaries of triple bottom line reporting: a survey’, Environmental Management 41 (1): 106–17.
- Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA), 2005, Sustainability: Taking Corporate Governance One Step Further. Volume III, Kuala Lumpur: ACCA.
- Atkins, B., 2006, ‘Is corporate social responsibility responsible?’, http://www.forbes.com/2006/11/16/leadership-philanthropy-charity-lead-citizen-cx_ ba_1128directorship.html, accessed 2 September 2008.
- Bair, J., Błaszczyk, P., Ely, R., Henry, V., Kanovei, V., Katz, K.U., Katz, M.G., Kutateladze, S.S., McGaffey, T., Schaps, D.M., Sherry, D. and Shnider, S., 2013, ‘Is mathematical history written by the victors?’, Notices of the AMS 60 (7): 886–904.
- Berle, A.A., 1931, ‘Corporate powers as powers in trust’, Harvard Law Review 44 (7): 1049–74.
- Berle, A.A., 1932, ‘For whom corporate managers are trustees: a note’, Harvard Law Review 45 (8): 1365–72.
- Blair, M.M., 2005, ‘Closing the theory gap: how the economic theory of property rights can help bring “stakeholders” back into theories of the firm’, Journal of Management and Governance 9: 33–9.
- Churet, C., and Eccles, R.G., 2014, ‘Integrated reporting, quality of management, and financial performance’, Journal of Applied Corporate Finance 26 (1): 56–64. Davis, I., 2005, ‘What is the business of business?’, McKinsey Quarterly 3: 105–13. De Villiers, C., Rinaldi, L. and Unerman, J., 2014, ‘Integrated Reporting: insights, gaps and an agenda for future research’, Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal 27 (7): 1042–67.
- Dodd, E.M., 1932, ‘For whom are corporate managers trustees?’, Harvard Law Review 45 (7): 1145–63.
- Driver, C., and Thompson, G., 2002, ‘Corporate governance and democracy: the stakeholder debate revisited’, Journal of Management and Governance 6 (2): 111–30.
- Eccles, R.G., 2010, ‘Introduction: the state of integrated reporting today’, in R.G. Eccles, B. Cheng and D. Saltzman, eds, The Landscape of Integrated Reporting: reflections and next steps, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School.
- Eccles, R.G., Cheng, B., and Saltzman, D., eds, 2010, The Landscape of Integrated Reporting: reflections and next steps, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School.
- Eccles, R.G., Krzus, M.P. and Serafeim, G., 2011, ‘Market interest in non-financial information’, Working paper 12-018, 22 September, Cambridge, MA Harvard Business School.
- Eccles, R.G., Krzus, M.P., and Watson, L.A., 2012, Integrated reporting requires integrated assurance, in J. Oringel, ed., Effective Auditing for Corporates: Key Developments in Practice and Procedures, London: Bloomsbury Information.
- Elkington, J., 1994, ‘Towards the sustainable corporation: win-win-win business strategies for sustainable development’, California Management Review 36 (2): 90–100.
- Ezzamel, M., and Hoskin, K., 2002, ‘Retheorizing accounting, writing and money with evidence from Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt’, Critical Perspectives on Accounting 13 (3): 333–67.
- Flower, J., 2014, ‘The international integrated reporting council: a story of failure’, Critical Perspectives on Accounting 27 (1): 1–17.
- Force for Good, n.d., ‘Tomorrow’s global company: challenges and choices’, file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/Tomorrow_Global_Company_50448e07a0fa5.pdf, accessed 14 January 2011.
- Freeman, R.E., 1984, Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach, Boston, MA: Pitman/Ballinger.
- Freeman, R.E., 1994, ‘The politics of stakeholder theory: some future directions’, Business Ethics Quarterly 4 (4): 409–21.
- Freeman, R.E., and McVea, J., 2001, ‘A stakeholder approach to strategic management’, in M.A. Hitt, R.E. Freeman and J.S. Harrison, eds, Handbook of Strategic Management, Oxford: Blackwell.
- Friedman, M., 1970, ‘The social responsibility of business is to increase its profits’, The New York Times Magazine, 13 September.
- FuenteI, J.A., García-Sánchez, M. and Lozano, M.B., 2017, ‘The role of the board of directors in the adoption of GRI guidelines for the disclosure of CSR information’, Journal of Cleaner Production 141: 737–50.
- Gouws, D.G., and Cronjé, C.J., 2008, ‘Corporate annual reports: accounting practices in transition’, Southern African Business Review 12 (2): 108–32.
- Gray, R., and Milne, M., 2002, ‘Sustainability reporting: who’s kidding whom?’, Chartered Accountants Journal of New Zealand 81 (6): 66–70.
- Guzman, A.T., and Meyer, T.L., 2009, ‘International common law: the soft law of international tribunals’, Chicago Journal of International Law 9 (2): 515–35.
- Haji, A.A., and Anifowose, M., 2016, ‘The trend of integrated reporting practice in South Africa: ceremonial or substantive?’, Sustainability Accounting, Management and Policy Journal 7 (2): 1–224.
- Hibbitt, C., 1999, Towards a generally accepted framework for environmental reporting: a commentary, FEE Discussion Paper.
- Hummels, H., and Timmer, D., 2004, ‘Investors in need of social, ethical, and environmental information’, Journal of Business Ethics 52 (1): 73–84.
- Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales (ICAEW), 2005, Agency theory and the role of audit, http://www.icaew.com/index.cfm/route/139474/icaew_ga/Technical_and_Business_Topics/Thought_leadership/Audit_Quality_Forum/Agency_theoryand_the_role_of_audit/pdf, accessed 1 March 2010.
- Institute of Directors in Southern Africa (IoDSA), 2009, King Code of Governance for South Africa 2009, Sandton: LexisNexis.
- Institute of Directors in Southern Africa (IoDSA), 2016, King IV Report on Corporate Governance for South Africa 2016, Sandton: LexisNexis.
- International Integrated Reporting Council (IIRC), 2011, ‘Towards integrated reporting – communicating value in the 21st century’, discussion paper issued by the IIRC, London.
- International Integrated Reporting Council (IIRC), 2013, The International Integrated Reporting Framework, London: IIRC.
- Jenkins, R., 2001, ‘Corporate codes of conduct: self-regulation in a global economy’, Technology, Business and Society, Programme Paper no. 2, April, United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD), Geneva.
- Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE), 2011, JSE listing requirements. Service issue 14, 25 November, http://www.jse.co.za/Libraries/JSE_-_Listings_Requirements_-_Service_Issues/Service_Issue_14.sflb.ashx, accessed 28 January 2012.
- Karnani, A., 2011, ‘“Doing well by doing good”: the grand illusion’, California Management Review 53 (2): 69–86.
- Kok, P., Van der Wiele, T., McKenna, R. and Brown, A., 2001, ‘A corporate social responsibility audit within a quality management framework’, Journal of Business Ethics, 31 (4): 285–97.
- Kotler, P. and Lee, N., 2005, Corporate Social Responsibility: Doing the Most Good for your Company and your Cause, Wiley, NJ: Hoboken.
- Littleton, A.C., 1933, Accounting Evolution to 1900, New York: America Institute Publishing Co. Inc.
- Loots, J.A.J., 1989, ‘An evaluation of the applicability of comprehensive auditing in the South African context’, Unpublished DCom (Accounting) thesis, University of Pretoria.
- Lutz, D.W., 2009, ‘African ubuntu philosophy and global management’, Journal of Business Ethics 84 (3): 313–28.
- Makower, J., 1994, Beyond the Bottom Line: Putting Social Responsibility to Work for your Business and the World, New York: Simon & Schuster.
- Mangena, F., 2012., ‘Towards a Hunhu/Ubuntu dialogical moral theory’, Phronimon: Journal of the South African Society for Greek Philosophy and the Humanities 13 (2): 1-17.
- Mangena, F., 2016, ‘African ethics through ubuntu: a postmodern exposition’, Africology: The Journal of Pan African Studies 9 (2): 66-80.
- Maury, M.D., 2000, ‘A circle of influence: Are all stakeholders included?’, Journal of Business Ethics 23 (1): 117–21.
- Mock, T.J., Strohm, C. and Swartz, M., 2007, ‘An examination of worldwide assured sustainability reporting’, Australian Accounting Review 17 (1): 67–77.
References
Ackers, B., 2009, ‘Corporate social responsibility assurance: how do South African publicly listed companies compare?’, Meditari Accountancy Research 17 (2): 1–17.
Ackers, B., 2014, ‘Corporate social responsibility reporting: what boards of directors need to know’, Corporate Board: Role, Duties and Composition 10 (3): 38–59.
Ackers, B., 2017a, ‘Independent corporate social responsibility assurance: a response to soft laws, or influenced by company size and industry sector?’, International Journal of Disclosure and Governance 14 (4): 278–98.
Ackers, B., 2017b, ‘The evolution of Corporate Social Responsibility assurance – a longitudinal study’, Social and Environmental Accountability Journal 37 (2): 97–117.
Ackers, B. and Eccles, N.S., 2015, ‘Mandatory Corporate Social Responsibility assurance practices: the case of King III in South Africa’, Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal 28 (4): 515–50.
Adams, C.A., 2015, ‘The international integrated reporting council: a call to action’, Critical Perspectives on Accounting 27 (1): 23–28.
Amaeshi, K., and Idemudia, U., 2015, ‘Africapitalism: a management idea for business in Africa?’, Africa Journal of Management 1 (2): 210–23.
Anand, A.I., 2005, Voluntary vs mandatory corporate governance: Towards an optimal regulatory framework, in American Law and Economics Association Annual Meetings, Paper 44, Bepress Legal Repository, http://law.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1537&context=alea, accessed 30 September 2016.
Ansoff, I., 1965, Corporate Strategy, New York: McGraw Hill.
Aras, G. and Crowther, D., 2008, ‘Corporate sustainability reporting: a study in disingenuity?’, Journal of Business Ethics 87 (1): 279–88.
Archel, P., Fernández, M. and Larrinaga, C., 2008, ‘The organisational and operational boundaries of triple bottom line reporting: a survey’, Environmental Management 41 (1): 106–17.
Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA), 2005, Sustainability: Taking Corporate Governance One Step Further. Volume III, Kuala Lumpur: ACCA.
Atkins, B., 2006, ‘Is corporate social responsibility responsible?’, http://www.forbes.com/2006/11/16/leadership-philanthropy-charity-lead-citizen-cx_ ba_1128directorship.html, accessed 2 September 2008.
Bair, J., Błaszczyk, P., Ely, R., Henry, V., Kanovei, V., Katz, K.U., Katz, M.G., Kutateladze, S.S., McGaffey, T., Schaps, D.M., Sherry, D. and Shnider, S., 2013, ‘Is mathematical history written by the victors?’, Notices of the AMS 60 (7): 886–904.
Berle, A.A., 1931, ‘Corporate powers as powers in trust’, Harvard Law Review 44 (7): 1049–74.
Berle, A.A., 1932, ‘For whom corporate managers are trustees: a note’, Harvard Law Review 45 (8): 1365–72.
Blair, M.M., 2005, ‘Closing the theory gap: how the economic theory of property rights can help bring “stakeholders” back into theories of the firm’, Journal of Management and Governance 9: 33–9.
Churet, C., and Eccles, R.G., 2014, ‘Integrated reporting, quality of management, and financial performance’, Journal of Applied Corporate Finance 26 (1): 56–64. Davis, I., 2005, ‘What is the business of business?’, McKinsey Quarterly 3: 105–13. De Villiers, C., Rinaldi, L. and Unerman, J., 2014, ‘Integrated Reporting: insights, gaps and an agenda for future research’, Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal 27 (7): 1042–67.
Dodd, E.M., 1932, ‘For whom are corporate managers trustees?’, Harvard Law Review 45 (7): 1145–63.
Driver, C., and Thompson, G., 2002, ‘Corporate governance and democracy: the stakeholder debate revisited’, Journal of Management and Governance 6 (2): 111–30.
Eccles, R.G., 2010, ‘Introduction: the state of integrated reporting today’, in R.G. Eccles, B. Cheng and D. Saltzman, eds, The Landscape of Integrated Reporting: reflections and next steps, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School.
Eccles, R.G., Cheng, B., and Saltzman, D., eds, 2010, The Landscape of Integrated Reporting: reflections and next steps, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School.
Eccles, R.G., Krzus, M.P. and Serafeim, G., 2011, ‘Market interest in non-financial information’, Working paper 12-018, 22 September, Cambridge, MA Harvard Business School.
Eccles, R.G., Krzus, M.P., and Watson, L.A., 2012, Integrated reporting requires integrated assurance, in J. Oringel, ed., Effective Auditing for Corporates: Key Developments in Practice and Procedures, London: Bloomsbury Information.
Elkington, J., 1994, ‘Towards the sustainable corporation: win-win-win business strategies for sustainable development’, California Management Review 36 (2): 90–100.
Ezzamel, M., and Hoskin, K., 2002, ‘Retheorizing accounting, writing and money with evidence from Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt’, Critical Perspectives on Accounting 13 (3): 333–67.
Flower, J., 2014, ‘The international integrated reporting council: a story of failure’, Critical Perspectives on Accounting 27 (1): 1–17.
Force for Good, n.d., ‘Tomorrow’s global company: challenges and choices’, file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/Tomorrow_Global_Company_50448e07a0fa5.pdf, accessed 14 January 2011.
Freeman, R.E., 1984, Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach, Boston, MA: Pitman/Ballinger.
Freeman, R.E., 1994, ‘The politics of stakeholder theory: some future directions’, Business Ethics Quarterly 4 (4): 409–21.
Freeman, R.E., and McVea, J., 2001, ‘A stakeholder approach to strategic management’, in M.A. Hitt, R.E. Freeman and J.S. Harrison, eds, Handbook of Strategic Management, Oxford: Blackwell.
Friedman, M., 1970, ‘The social responsibility of business is to increase its profits’, The New York Times Magazine, 13 September.
FuenteI, J.A., García-Sánchez, M. and Lozano, M.B., 2017, ‘The role of the board of directors in the adoption of GRI guidelines for the disclosure of CSR information’, Journal of Cleaner Production 141: 737–50.
Gouws, D.G., and Cronjé, C.J., 2008, ‘Corporate annual reports: accounting practices in transition’, Southern African Business Review 12 (2): 108–32.
Gray, R., and Milne, M., 2002, ‘Sustainability reporting: who’s kidding whom?’, Chartered Accountants Journal of New Zealand 81 (6): 66–70.
Guzman, A.T., and Meyer, T.L., 2009, ‘International common law: the soft law of international tribunals’, Chicago Journal of International Law 9 (2): 515–35.
Haji, A.A., and Anifowose, M., 2016, ‘The trend of integrated reporting practice in South Africa: ceremonial or substantive?’, Sustainability Accounting, Management and Policy Journal 7 (2): 1–224.
Hibbitt, C., 1999, Towards a generally accepted framework for environmental reporting: a commentary, FEE Discussion Paper.
Hummels, H., and Timmer, D., 2004, ‘Investors in need of social, ethical, and environmental information’, Journal of Business Ethics 52 (1): 73–84.
Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales (ICAEW), 2005, Agency theory and the role of audit, http://www.icaew.com/index.cfm/route/139474/icaew_ga/Technical_and_Business_Topics/Thought_leadership/Audit_Quality_Forum/Agency_theoryand_the_role_of_audit/pdf, accessed 1 March 2010.
Institute of Directors in Southern Africa (IoDSA), 2009, King Code of Governance for South Africa 2009, Sandton: LexisNexis.
Institute of Directors in Southern Africa (IoDSA), 2016, King IV Report on Corporate Governance for South Africa 2016, Sandton: LexisNexis.
International Integrated Reporting Council (IIRC), 2011, ‘Towards integrated reporting – communicating value in the 21st century’, discussion paper issued by the IIRC, London.
International Integrated Reporting Council (IIRC), 2013, The International Integrated Reporting Framework, London: IIRC.
Jenkins, R., 2001, ‘Corporate codes of conduct: self-regulation in a global economy’, Technology, Business and Society, Programme Paper no. 2, April, United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD), Geneva.
Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE), 2011, JSE listing requirements. Service issue 14, 25 November, http://www.jse.co.za/Libraries/JSE_-_Listings_Requirements_-_Service_Issues/Service_Issue_14.sflb.ashx, accessed 28 January 2012.
Karnani, A., 2011, ‘“Doing well by doing good”: the grand illusion’, California Management Review 53 (2): 69–86.
Kok, P., Van der Wiele, T., McKenna, R. and Brown, A., 2001, ‘A corporate social responsibility audit within a quality management framework’, Journal of Business Ethics, 31 (4): 285–97.
Kotler, P. and Lee, N., 2005, Corporate Social Responsibility: Doing the Most Good for your Company and your Cause, Wiley, NJ: Hoboken.
Littleton, A.C., 1933, Accounting Evolution to 1900, New York: America Institute Publishing Co. Inc.
Loots, J.A.J., 1989, ‘An evaluation of the applicability of comprehensive auditing in the South African context’, Unpublished DCom (Accounting) thesis, University of Pretoria.
Lutz, D.W., 2009, ‘African ubuntu philosophy and global management’, Journal of Business Ethics 84 (3): 313–28.
Makower, J., 1994, Beyond the Bottom Line: Putting Social Responsibility to Work for your Business and the World, New York: Simon & Schuster.
Mangena, F., 2012., ‘Towards a Hunhu/Ubuntu dialogical moral theory’, Phronimon: Journal of the South African Society for Greek Philosophy and the Humanities 13 (2): 1-17.
Mangena, F., 2016, ‘African ethics through ubuntu: a postmodern exposition’, Africology: The Journal of Pan African Studies 9 (2): 66-80.
Maury, M.D., 2000, ‘A circle of influence: Are all stakeholders included?’, Journal of Business Ethics 23 (1): 117–21.
Mock, T.J., Strohm, C. and Swartz, M., 2007, ‘An examination of worldwide assured sustainability reporting’, Australian Accounting Review 17 (1): 67–77.