9 - Participatory Development and Non-Governmental Organisations in Sudan: Expectations and Realities
Corresponding Author(s) : Nawal El-Gack
Africa Development,
Vol. 37 No. 2 (2012): Africa Development
Abstract
This article describes and analyses the roles and contributions of non- governmental organisations in Sudan. There is a strong belief that involving local people in development activities would be achieved through community organisations. As a result, when implementing participatory development interventions, there is a tendency to rely on non-governmental organisations (NGOs) at national and regional levels, and support the formation of community organisations at grassroots level. To understand the concepts of these practices, this article will provide a brief review of NGOs’ theories and in-depth analysis of Sudanese NGOs’ performance and contributions. It suggests that there is a need to encourage and support the establishment of effective networks and links between government institutions local community organisations, private sectors and international organisations. Moreover, the article argues that international organisations with genuine intentions to reach the impoverished communities should be aware of their local partners’ vision and investigate how genuine democratic and accountable non-governmental organisations are promoting participatory development approaches. Information about NGOs is based on a field research conducted 2007. I used focus group discussion and semi-structured interviews to explore the participants’ perceptions and experiences.
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- Black, J., 1991, Development in Theory and Practice: Bridging the Gap, San Francisco and Oxford: West View Press.
- Brohman, J., 1996, Popular Movement: Rethinking the Theory and Practice of Development, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
- Burayidi, M.A., 2000. ‘Urban Planning as a Multicultural Canon’, in Burayidi, M. A., ed., Urban Planning in a Multicultural Society. Westport CT: Praeger, pp. 1-14
- Chambers, R., 1991, ‘Shortcut and Participatory Methods for Gaining Social Information for Projects’, in Cernea, M. M., ed., Putting People First: Sociological Variables in Rural Development, 2nd ed. World Bank Publication, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 515-537.
- Cleaver, F., 2001, ‘Institutions, Agency and the Limitation of Participatory Approaches to Development’, in Cooke, B. and Kothari, U., eds, Participation: The New Tyranny. London; New York: Zed Books Ltd, pp. 36-55.
- Cornwall, A., 2003, ‘Who’s Voice? Whose Choice? Reflections on Gender and Participating Development’, World Development 31(8), pp. 1325-1342.
- Egger, P., 1995, ‘Freedom of Association, Rural Workers’ Organisations and Participatory Development’, in Schneider, H. and Libercier, M., eds, Participatory Development from Advocatory to Action, Paris: OECD, pp. 101-111.
- Evans, P., 2003, ‘Development as Institutional Change: The Pitfalls of Mono- cropping and Potentials of Deliberation’, (http://econ.ucsd.edu/seminars/ seven_ssrc/Evans_Inst%20MonoCrop_Revised_982003.doc). 21 October 2005.
- Hailey, J., 2001, ‘Beyond the Formulaic: Process and Practice in South Asian NGOs’, in Cooke, B. and Kothari, U., eds, Participation: The New Tyranny. London and New York: Zed Books, pp. 88-101.
- Henkel, H. and Stirrat, R., 2001, ‘Participation as Spiritual Duty: Empowerment and Secular Subjection’, in Cooke, B. and Kothari, U., eds, Participation: The New Tyranny. London and New York: Zed Books Ltd, pp. 168-184.
- IFAD, 2002, Village Development Organisation Constitution. El-Obeid: NKRDP- IFAD.
- Kabeer, N., 2003, Gender Mainstreaming in Poverty Eradication and the Millennium Development Goals. London: Commonwealth Secretariat.
- Kelly, K. and Caputo, T., 2006, ‘Case Study of Grassroots Community Development: Sustainable, Flexible and Cost-effective Responses to Local Needs’, Community Development Journal 41(2), pp. 234-245.
- Kothari, U. and Minogue, M., 2002, ‘Critical Perspectives on Development’, in Kothari, U. and Minogue, M., eds, Development Theory and Practice: Critical Perspective. Houndmills, Basingstoke and Hampshire: Palgrave Publishers, pp.1-15.
- Lozare, B.V., 1994, ‘Power and Conflict: Hidden Dimensions of Communication, Participative Planning and Action’, in White, S.A., Nair, K. S. and Ashcroft, J., eds, Participatory Communication Working for Change and Development. New Delhi, Thousand Oaks and London: Sage Publications, pp. 229-244.
- Mitlin, D., 2004, ‘Securing Voice and Transforming Practice in Local Government: The Role of Federating in Grassroots Development’, in Hickey, S. and Mohan, G., eds, Participation from Tyranny to Transformation? Exploring New Approaches to Participation in Development. London and New York: Zed Books Ltd, pp. 175-189.
- Mohammed, Y.A., 2001, ‘Sudan Policy and Institutional Changes for Implementation of Agenda 21’, in Abdel-Atti, H., ed., Sustainable Development in Sudan Edge for Consultancy and resources, Horn of Africa: Regional Office, Heinrich Boll Foundation., pp. 141-165.
- Pretty, J. and Scoones, I., 1995, ‘Institutionalising Adaptive Planning and Local Level Concerns: Looking to the Future’, in Nelson, N. and Wright, S., eds, Power and Participatory Development: Theory and Practice. London: Intermediate Technology Publications, pp 157-169.
- Rahman, M.A., 1995, ‘Participatory Development: Towards Liberation or Co- optation’, in Mayo, M. and Craig, G. eds, Community Empowerment: A Reader in Participation and Development. London and New Jersey: Zed Books Ltd, pp. 24-32.
- Rahnema, M., 1992, ‘Participation’, in Sachs, W., ed., The Development Dictionary. London: Zed Books Ltd, pp. 116-131.
- Schneider, H. and Libercier, M., 1995, ‘Concepts, Issues and Experiences for Building up Participation’, in Schneider, H. and Libercier, M. eds, Participatory Development from Advocatory to Action. Paris: OECD, pp. 29-64.
- Sudan Government, 1992, National Comprehensive Strategy. Khartoum: Institute of Strategic Studies Khartoum.
- Sudan Government, 1997, Sudanese Strategic Report. Khartoum: Institute of Strategic Studies.
- Uphoff, N., 1991, ‘Fitting Projects to People’, in Cernea, M. M., ed., Putting People First: Sociological Variables in Rural Development, 2nd ed. A World Bank Publication: Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 476-511.
- Warren, P., 1998, Developing Participatory and Integrated Watershed Management. Community Forestry Case Study Series 13, Rome: FAO.
- Weekes-Vagliani, W., 1995, ‘Participatory Development and Gender’, in Schneider, H. and Libercier, M., eds, Participatory Development from Advocatory to Action, Paris: OECD, pp. 65-77.
- Willis, K., 2005, Theories and Practices of Development. London and New York: Routledge.
References
Black, J., 1991, Development in Theory and Practice: Bridging the Gap, San Francisco and Oxford: West View Press.
Brohman, J., 1996, Popular Movement: Rethinking the Theory and Practice of Development, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
Burayidi, M.A., 2000. ‘Urban Planning as a Multicultural Canon’, in Burayidi, M. A., ed., Urban Planning in a Multicultural Society. Westport CT: Praeger, pp. 1-14
Chambers, R., 1991, ‘Shortcut and Participatory Methods for Gaining Social Information for Projects’, in Cernea, M. M., ed., Putting People First: Sociological Variables in Rural Development, 2nd ed. World Bank Publication, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 515-537.
Cleaver, F., 2001, ‘Institutions, Agency and the Limitation of Participatory Approaches to Development’, in Cooke, B. and Kothari, U., eds, Participation: The New Tyranny. London; New York: Zed Books Ltd, pp. 36-55.
Cornwall, A., 2003, ‘Who’s Voice? Whose Choice? Reflections on Gender and Participating Development’, World Development 31(8), pp. 1325-1342.
Egger, P., 1995, ‘Freedom of Association, Rural Workers’ Organisations and Participatory Development’, in Schneider, H. and Libercier, M., eds, Participatory Development from Advocatory to Action, Paris: OECD, pp. 101-111.
Evans, P., 2003, ‘Development as Institutional Change: The Pitfalls of Mono- cropping and Potentials of Deliberation’, (http://econ.ucsd.edu/seminars/ seven_ssrc/Evans_Inst%20MonoCrop_Revised_982003.doc). 21 October 2005.
Hailey, J., 2001, ‘Beyond the Formulaic: Process and Practice in South Asian NGOs’, in Cooke, B. and Kothari, U., eds, Participation: The New Tyranny. London and New York: Zed Books, pp. 88-101.
Henkel, H. and Stirrat, R., 2001, ‘Participation as Spiritual Duty: Empowerment and Secular Subjection’, in Cooke, B. and Kothari, U., eds, Participation: The New Tyranny. London and New York: Zed Books Ltd, pp. 168-184.
IFAD, 2002, Village Development Organisation Constitution. El-Obeid: NKRDP- IFAD.
Kabeer, N., 2003, Gender Mainstreaming in Poverty Eradication and the Millennium Development Goals. London: Commonwealth Secretariat.
Kelly, K. and Caputo, T., 2006, ‘Case Study of Grassroots Community Development: Sustainable, Flexible and Cost-effective Responses to Local Needs’, Community Development Journal 41(2), pp. 234-245.
Kothari, U. and Minogue, M., 2002, ‘Critical Perspectives on Development’, in Kothari, U. and Minogue, M., eds, Development Theory and Practice: Critical Perspective. Houndmills, Basingstoke and Hampshire: Palgrave Publishers, pp.1-15.
Lozare, B.V., 1994, ‘Power and Conflict: Hidden Dimensions of Communication, Participative Planning and Action’, in White, S.A., Nair, K. S. and Ashcroft, J., eds, Participatory Communication Working for Change and Development. New Delhi, Thousand Oaks and London: Sage Publications, pp. 229-244.
Mitlin, D., 2004, ‘Securing Voice and Transforming Practice in Local Government: The Role of Federating in Grassroots Development’, in Hickey, S. and Mohan, G., eds, Participation from Tyranny to Transformation? Exploring New Approaches to Participation in Development. London and New York: Zed Books Ltd, pp. 175-189.
Mohammed, Y.A., 2001, ‘Sudan Policy and Institutional Changes for Implementation of Agenda 21’, in Abdel-Atti, H., ed., Sustainable Development in Sudan Edge for Consultancy and resources, Horn of Africa: Regional Office, Heinrich Boll Foundation., pp. 141-165.
Pretty, J. and Scoones, I., 1995, ‘Institutionalising Adaptive Planning and Local Level Concerns: Looking to the Future’, in Nelson, N. and Wright, S., eds, Power and Participatory Development: Theory and Practice. London: Intermediate Technology Publications, pp 157-169.
Rahman, M.A., 1995, ‘Participatory Development: Towards Liberation or Co- optation’, in Mayo, M. and Craig, G. eds, Community Empowerment: A Reader in Participation and Development. London and New Jersey: Zed Books Ltd, pp. 24-32.
Rahnema, M., 1992, ‘Participation’, in Sachs, W., ed., The Development Dictionary. London: Zed Books Ltd, pp. 116-131.
Schneider, H. and Libercier, M., 1995, ‘Concepts, Issues and Experiences for Building up Participation’, in Schneider, H. and Libercier, M. eds, Participatory Development from Advocatory to Action. Paris: OECD, pp. 29-64.
Sudan Government, 1992, National Comprehensive Strategy. Khartoum: Institute of Strategic Studies Khartoum.
Sudan Government, 1997, Sudanese Strategic Report. Khartoum: Institute of Strategic Studies.
Uphoff, N., 1991, ‘Fitting Projects to People’, in Cernea, M. M., ed., Putting People First: Sociological Variables in Rural Development, 2nd ed. A World Bank Publication: Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 476-511.
Warren, P., 1998, Developing Participatory and Integrated Watershed Management. Community Forestry Case Study Series 13, Rome: FAO.
Weekes-Vagliani, W., 1995, ‘Participatory Development and Gender’, in Schneider, H. and Libercier, M., eds, Participatory Development from Advocatory to Action, Paris: OECD, pp. 65-77.
Willis, K., 2005, Theories and Practices of Development. London and New York: Routledge.