2 - The Silences in the NGO Discourse: The role and future of NGOs in Africa*
Corresponding Author(s) : Issa G. Shivji
Afrique et développement,
Vol. 31 No 4 (2006): Afrique et développement
Résumé
Cet article tente de faire un examen critique du rôle et de l’avenir des ong en Afrique, qui se veulent être des associations non gouvernementales, non politiques, non partisanes, non idéologiques, non académiques, non théoriques et à but non lucratif, composées d’individus bien intentionnés, ayant pour ambi- tion de changer le monde afin, de le rendre meilleur pour les pauvres, les marginalisés et les groupes opprimés. Cet article affirme que le rôle des ong en Afrique ne peut être compris sans une caractérisation bien claire du moment historique actuel.
Je dépeins l’Afrique comme étant au carrefour de la défaite duProjet National et de la réhabilitation du projet impérialiste. Face à l’avalanche de diatribes « catastrophistes », je considère qu’il est nécessaire de rappeler l’histoire de l’asservissement de l’Afrique, de ses premiers contacts avec les Européens il y a cinq siècles à l’actuelle mondialisation, en passant par l’esclavage et le colonialisme. L’objectif d’une telle digression historique est de démontrer l’antinomie fondamentale entre les Projets Nationaux et Impérialistes, afin de bien identifier la place et le rôle des ong au sein de ceux-ci.
Je situerais le développement, l’importance et la place privilégiée des ong dans les entrailles mêmes de l’offensive néolibérale dont la finalité est aussi bien idéologique qu’économique et politique. Je soutiens que le discours des ong, ou plus exactement leur non-discours, est fondé sur les hypothèses philosophiques et politiques du paradigme du néolibéralisme/de la mondialisation. C’est dans ce contexte que je poursuis, en discutant des « cinq silences » ou zones d’ombres décelées dans le discours des ong. Je dégage ensuite les implications de ces silences sur le rôle futur et contemporain des ong en Afrique.
Dès le départ, j’aimerais me livrer à deux confessions. Premièrement, cet article est sans nul doute critique, parfois impitoyablement critique, mais jamais cynique. Deuxièmement, cette critique est également une auto-critique, car l’auteur s’est livré à l’activisme des ong au cours des quinze dernières années. Enfin, j’aimerais préciser que je ne doute pas des bonnes intentions et de la noble motivation qui animent les dirigeants et activistes des ong. Mais l’on ne peut juger du résultat d’un processus à travers les intentions de ses auteurs. L’on analyse l’effet objectif des actions menées, sans tenir compte des intentions. J’espère que c’est ce que j’aurai réussi à réaliser ici.
Télécharger la référence bibliographique
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)BibTeX
- Adedeji, A., ed., 1993, Africa within the World: Beyond Dispossession and Dependence, London: Zed
- Books.
- Amin, S., 1990, Maldevelopment: Anatomy of a Global Failure, London: Zed Books.
- Anyang’ Nyong’o, P., Ghirmazion, A & Lamba, D., eds., 2002, New Partnership for Africa’s
- Development, NEPAD: A New Path?, Nairobi: Heinrich Boll Foundation.
- Blum, W., 1986, The CIA, A Forgotten History, London: Zed Books.
- Blum, W., 2001, Rogue State: A Guide to the World’s Only Superpower, London: Zed Books.
- Bond, P., ed. 2002, Fanon’s Warning: a Civil Society Reader on the New Partnership for Africa’s
- Development, New Jersey: Africa World Press.
- Cabral, A., 1969, ‘The weapon of theory’, in Amilcar Cabral, Revolution in Guinea, London: Stage 1.
- Cabral, A., 1980, Unity and Struggle: Speeches and Writings, London: Heinemann. Campbell, H., & H.
- Stein, eds., 1991, The IMF and Tanzania, Harare: SAPES. Davidson, B., 1961, Black Mother: A Study
- of the Precolonial Connection Between
- Africa and Europe, London: Longman.
- De Witte, L, 2001, The Assassination of Lumumba, Johannesburg: Jacana. Fanon, F., 1963, The
- Wretched of the Earth, London: Penguin.
- Furedi, F., 1994, The New Ideology of Imperialism, London: Pluto.
- Graham, Y., 2005, ‘Africa’s second “last chance”’, Red Pepper/G8 Africa Commission,
- http://www.redpepper.org.uk/global/x-jul05-graham.htm
- Himmelstrand, U., et al. eds., 1994, African Perspectives on Development, London: James Currey.
- Kjekshus, H., 1977 & 1996, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History, London: James Currey.
- Landsberg, C., & Kornegey, F. 1998, ‘The African Renaissance: A Quest for Pax Africana and
- Pan-Africanism’, in Foundation for Global Dialogue, South Africa and Africa: Reflections on the
- African Renaissance, FGD Occasional Paper No. 17.
- Legum, L., 1965, Pan-Africanism: A short political guide (Revised edition), London: Pall Mall Press.
- Mafeje, A., 2002, ‘Democratic Governance and new Democracy in Africa: Agenda for the Future’, in
- Peter Anyang’ Nyong’o, Aseghedech Ghirmazion & Davinder Lamba, eds., 2002, New Partnership for
- Africa’s Development, NEPAD: A New Path?, Nairobi: Heinrich Boll Foundation.
- Mahjoub, A., 1990, Adjustment or De-linking?, London: Zed/UNU.
- Mahmood, M., 1987, ‘Contradictory Class Perspectives on the Question of Democracy’, in Peter Anyang
- ’ Nyong’o, ed., Popular Struggles for Democracy in Africa, London: United Nations University/Zed Press.
- Mahmood, M., 1996, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism,
- Princeton: Princeton University Press.
- Manji, F.& Carol O’Coill, 2002, ‘The Missionary Position: NGOs and Development in Africa’,
- International Affairs, 78,3:567-83.
- Mboya, T., Freedom and After, 1963, London: Andre Deutsch.
- Mkandawire, T. & Soludo, C. C. eds., 1999, ‘Our Continent, Our Future’: African Perspectives on
- Structural Adjustment, Dakar: CODESRIA.
- Murphy, B. K., 2001, ‘International NGOs and the Challenge of Modernity’, in Deborah Eade & Ernst
- Ligteringen, eds., Debating Development, Oxford: Oxfam GB. Mwaikusa, J. T., 1995, Towards
- Responsible Democratic Government: Executive
- Power and Constitutional Practice in Tanzania, 1962-1992, Ph.D., Dissertation, University of London.
- Nkrumah, K., 1965, Neo-colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism, London, Heinemann.
- Nyerere, J. K., 1963b, ‘The Second Scramble’, reprinted in Nyerere, op. cit. 1967. Nyerere, J. K.,
- , Freedom and Socialism, London/ OUP.
- Nyerere, J. K., 1967, Freedom and Unity: A selection from Writings and Speeches, Dar es Salaam,
- Oxford University Press.
- Nyerere, J. K., 1963a, ‘A United States of Africa’, Journal of Modern African Studies, January
- , Cambridge, reprinted in Nyerere, op. cit. 1967.
- Nyerere, J.K., 1966, ‘The Dilemma of the Pan-Africanist’, in J. K. Nyerere, op. cit.1968.
- Nyerere, J.K.. 1997, ‘Africa Must Unite’, edited excerpts from a public lecture delivered in Accra
- to mark Ghana’s Fortieth Independence Day anniversary celebrations, United New Africa Global
- Network website: http:// www.unitednewafrica.com/Africa%20Unite.htm
- Peacock, A., 2002, Two Hundred Pharaohs and Five Billion Slaves, London, Ellipsis.
- Rodney, W., 1972, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Publishing House.
- Sayers, D., 1991, Capitalism & Modernity: An Excursus on Marx and Weber, London, Routledge.
- Semboja, J., Juma, M., & Jansen, E. eds., 2002, Local Perspectives on Globalisation: The African
- Case, Dar es Salaam: REPOA & Mkuki na Nyota.
- Sheriff, A., 1987, Slaves, Spices & Ivory in Zanzibar, London: James Currey. Shivji, I.G., 1987,
- ‘The Roots of the Agrarian Crisis in Tanzania,’ Eastern Africa
- Social Science Research Review, vol. 111, no.1,111-134.
- Shivji, I.G., ed., 1991, State and Constitutionalism: An African Debate on Democracy, Harare: SAPES.
- Shivji, I.G., 1998, Not Yet Democracy: Reforming Land Tenure in Tanzania, London: IIED.
- Shivji, I G., 2000, ‘Critical Elements of a New Democratic Consensus in Africa’, in Haroub Othman,
- ed., Reflections on Leadership in Africa: Essays in Honour of Mwalimu Julius K. Nyerere, Belgium:
- VUB University Press.
- Shivji, I.G., 2002, ‘Globalisation and Popular Resistance’, in Joseph Semboja, Juma Mwapachu &
- Eduard Jansen, eds., Local Perspectives on Globalisation: The African Case, Dar es Salaam, REPOA:
- Mkuki na Nyota.
- Shivji, I. G., 2003, ‘Three Generations of Constitutions and Constitution-making in Africa: An
- overview and assessment in social and economic context’, in M. S. Rosen, ed., Constitutionalism in
- Transition: Africa and Eastern Europe, Helsinki: Foundation for Human Rights.
- Shivji, I. G., 2005a, ‘The Rise, the Fall and the Insurrection of Nationalism in Africa’, in
- Felicia Arudo Yieke, ed., East Africa: In search of National and Regional Renewal; Dakar: CODESRIA
- Shivji, I.G., 2005b, Pan-Africanism or Imperialism?, Second Billy Dudley Memorial Lecture to the
- Nigerian Political Science Association, Nsukka, Nigeria, July 2005. Tandon, Y., 1982, University of
- Dar es Salaam: Debate on Class, State &
- Imperialism, Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Publishing House.
- Wamba-dia Wamba, E., 1991, ‘Discourse on the National Question’, in I. G. Shivji, ed., State and
- Constitutionalism: An African Debate on Democracy, Harare: SAPES.
- Wamba-dia Wamba, E., 1996, ‘The National Question in Zaire: Challenges to the Nation-State
- Project’, in Adebayo O. Olukoshi & Liisa Laakso, eds., Challenges to the Nation-State in Africa,
- Uppsala: Nordic African Institute.
- Williams, E., 1945, Capitalism or Slavery, London: Longman.
- Wilson, A., 1989, US Foreign Policy and Revolution: The Creation of Tanzania, London: Pluto.
- Yieke, F. A., ed., 2005, East Africa: In Search of National and Regional Renewal,Dakar: CODESRIA.
Les références
Adedeji, A., ed., 1993, Africa within the World: Beyond Dispossession and Dependence, London: Zed
Books.
Amin, S., 1990, Maldevelopment: Anatomy of a Global Failure, London: Zed Books.
Anyang’ Nyong’o, P., Ghirmazion, A & Lamba, D., eds., 2002, New Partnership for Africa’s
Development, NEPAD: A New Path?, Nairobi: Heinrich Boll Foundation.
Blum, W., 1986, The CIA, A Forgotten History, London: Zed Books.
Blum, W., 2001, Rogue State: A Guide to the World’s Only Superpower, London: Zed Books.
Bond, P., ed. 2002, Fanon’s Warning: a Civil Society Reader on the New Partnership for Africa’s
Development, New Jersey: Africa World Press.
Cabral, A., 1969, ‘The weapon of theory’, in Amilcar Cabral, Revolution in Guinea, London: Stage 1.
Cabral, A., 1980, Unity and Struggle: Speeches and Writings, London: Heinemann. Campbell, H., & H.
Stein, eds., 1991, The IMF and Tanzania, Harare: SAPES. Davidson, B., 1961, Black Mother: A Study
of the Precolonial Connection Between
Africa and Europe, London: Longman.
De Witte, L, 2001, The Assassination of Lumumba, Johannesburg: Jacana. Fanon, F., 1963, The
Wretched of the Earth, London: Penguin.
Furedi, F., 1994, The New Ideology of Imperialism, London: Pluto.
Graham, Y., 2005, ‘Africa’s second “last chance”’, Red Pepper/G8 Africa Commission,
http://www.redpepper.org.uk/global/x-jul05-graham.htm
Himmelstrand, U., et al. eds., 1994, African Perspectives on Development, London: James Currey.
Kjekshus, H., 1977 & 1996, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History, London: James Currey.
Landsberg, C., & Kornegey, F. 1998, ‘The African Renaissance: A Quest for Pax Africana and
Pan-Africanism’, in Foundation for Global Dialogue, South Africa and Africa: Reflections on the
African Renaissance, FGD Occasional Paper No. 17.
Legum, L., 1965, Pan-Africanism: A short political guide (Revised edition), London: Pall Mall Press.
Mafeje, A., 2002, ‘Democratic Governance and new Democracy in Africa: Agenda for the Future’, in
Peter Anyang’ Nyong’o, Aseghedech Ghirmazion & Davinder Lamba, eds., 2002, New Partnership for
Africa’s Development, NEPAD: A New Path?, Nairobi: Heinrich Boll Foundation.
Mahjoub, A., 1990, Adjustment or De-linking?, London: Zed/UNU.
Mahmood, M., 1987, ‘Contradictory Class Perspectives on the Question of Democracy’, in Peter Anyang
’ Nyong’o, ed., Popular Struggles for Democracy in Africa, London: United Nations University/Zed Press.
Mahmood, M., 1996, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism,
Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Manji, F.& Carol O’Coill, 2002, ‘The Missionary Position: NGOs and Development in Africa’,
International Affairs, 78,3:567-83.
Mboya, T., Freedom and After, 1963, London: Andre Deutsch.
Mkandawire, T. & Soludo, C. C. eds., 1999, ‘Our Continent, Our Future’: African Perspectives on
Structural Adjustment, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Murphy, B. K., 2001, ‘International NGOs and the Challenge of Modernity’, in Deborah Eade & Ernst
Ligteringen, eds., Debating Development, Oxford: Oxfam GB. Mwaikusa, J. T., 1995, Towards
Responsible Democratic Government: Executive
Power and Constitutional Practice in Tanzania, 1962-1992, Ph.D., Dissertation, University of London.
Nkrumah, K., 1965, Neo-colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism, London, Heinemann.
Nyerere, J. K., 1963b, ‘The Second Scramble’, reprinted in Nyerere, op. cit. 1967. Nyerere, J. K.,
, Freedom and Socialism, London/ OUP.
Nyerere, J. K., 1967, Freedom and Unity: A selection from Writings and Speeches, Dar es Salaam,
Oxford University Press.
Nyerere, J. K., 1963a, ‘A United States of Africa’, Journal of Modern African Studies, January
, Cambridge, reprinted in Nyerere, op. cit. 1967.
Nyerere, J.K., 1966, ‘The Dilemma of the Pan-Africanist’, in J. K. Nyerere, op. cit.1968.
Nyerere, J.K.. 1997, ‘Africa Must Unite’, edited excerpts from a public lecture delivered in Accra
to mark Ghana’s Fortieth Independence Day anniversary celebrations, United New Africa Global
Network website: http:// www.unitednewafrica.com/Africa%20Unite.htm
Peacock, A., 2002, Two Hundred Pharaohs and Five Billion Slaves, London, Ellipsis.
Rodney, W., 1972, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Publishing House.
Sayers, D., 1991, Capitalism & Modernity: An Excursus on Marx and Weber, London, Routledge.
Semboja, J., Juma, M., & Jansen, E. eds., 2002, Local Perspectives on Globalisation: The African
Case, Dar es Salaam: REPOA & Mkuki na Nyota.
Sheriff, A., 1987, Slaves, Spices & Ivory in Zanzibar, London: James Currey. Shivji, I.G., 1987,
‘The Roots of the Agrarian Crisis in Tanzania,’ Eastern Africa
Social Science Research Review, vol. 111, no.1,111-134.
Shivji, I.G., ed., 1991, State and Constitutionalism: An African Debate on Democracy, Harare: SAPES.
Shivji, I.G., 1998, Not Yet Democracy: Reforming Land Tenure in Tanzania, London: IIED.
Shivji, I G., 2000, ‘Critical Elements of a New Democratic Consensus in Africa’, in Haroub Othman,
ed., Reflections on Leadership in Africa: Essays in Honour of Mwalimu Julius K. Nyerere, Belgium:
VUB University Press.
Shivji, I.G., 2002, ‘Globalisation and Popular Resistance’, in Joseph Semboja, Juma Mwapachu &
Eduard Jansen, eds., Local Perspectives on Globalisation: The African Case, Dar es Salaam, REPOA:
Mkuki na Nyota.
Shivji, I. G., 2003, ‘Three Generations of Constitutions and Constitution-making in Africa: An
overview and assessment in social and economic context’, in M. S. Rosen, ed., Constitutionalism in
Transition: Africa and Eastern Europe, Helsinki: Foundation for Human Rights.
Shivji, I. G., 2005a, ‘The Rise, the Fall and the Insurrection of Nationalism in Africa’, in
Felicia Arudo Yieke, ed., East Africa: In search of National and Regional Renewal; Dakar: CODESRIA
Shivji, I.G., 2005b, Pan-Africanism or Imperialism?, Second Billy Dudley Memorial Lecture to the
Nigerian Political Science Association, Nsukka, Nigeria, July 2005. Tandon, Y., 1982, University of
Dar es Salaam: Debate on Class, State &
Imperialism, Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Publishing House.
Wamba-dia Wamba, E., 1991, ‘Discourse on the National Question’, in I. G. Shivji, ed., State and
Constitutionalism: An African Debate on Democracy, Harare: SAPES.
Wamba-dia Wamba, E., 1996, ‘The National Question in Zaire: Challenges to the Nation-State
Project’, in Adebayo O. Olukoshi & Liisa Laakso, eds., Challenges to the Nation-State in Africa,
Uppsala: Nordic African Institute.
Williams, E., 1945, Capitalism or Slavery, London: Longman.
Wilson, A., 1989, US Foreign Policy and Revolution: The Creation of Tanzania, London: Pluto.
Yieke, F. A., ed., 2005, East Africa: In Search of National and Regional Renewal,Dakar: CODESRIA.