11 - Producing and Reproducing Inequality: Biopolitical Exclusion, Marginalized Bodies and AIDS Care in Central Mozambique
Corresponding Author(s) : Carla Teófilo Braga
Afrique et développement,
Vol. 42 No 1 (2017): Afrique et développement: Numéro spécial sur la gouvernance de la santé en Afrique : état des lieux
Résumé
Les études de la réponse des pays africains au VIH/sida et plus récemment, à l’épidémie d’Ebola, ont permis de remettre en question non seulement des facteurs individuels et comportementaux liés à ces situations, mais aussi la centralité des systèmes de prestations de soins eux-mêmes, notamment face à des défis d’une telle ampleur. Des systèmes de santé nationaux faibles, insuffisants, sous-financés et en sous-effectif, avec comme facteur aggravant le fait que les organismes internationaux de financement dissuadent, ou sinon empêchent, l’augmentation des budgets des États alloués aux secteurs sociaux, sont généralement considérés comme les principaux défis pour assurer l’accès des populations aux soins de santé. De surcroît, sur la base de travaux de terrain ethnographiques couvrant une période de deux ans dans la région centrale du Mozambique (où, dans un contexte néolibéral, le traitement du sida est assuré par le biais de mécanismes institutionnels comprenant l’État, les organismes d’aide et les ONG internationales), cet article indique que l’accès aux soins de santé et au traitement du sida, en particulier par les personnes les plus pauvres, peut aussi être entravé par trois facteurs. Premièrement, l’adoption d’un modèle international uniforme de traitement du sida, indépendamment du contexte. À travers la recherche de services biomédicaux de traitement du sida, cette étude met en relief les interactions complexes des politiques mondiales de santé avec les spécificités des prestations de soins de santé au niveau local, montrant l’importance de la culture et l’histoire organisationnelles des services biomédicaux. Deuxièmement, la production de catégories institutionnellement stigmatisantes pour étiqueter les patients qui n’adhèrent pas au traitement. Comme l’a souligné Ian Hacking, les catégories ont une incidence sur notre façon de concevoir les autres, et ces catégorisations influençaient la manière de penser à ces patients, de parler d’eux et de les traiter dans les centres de santé publics. Troisièmement, la valorisation des marqueurs socioéconomiques de différentiation, tels que la propreté et le niveau d’instruction des patients. Les soins biomédicaux sont un processus social complexe, qui se déroule dans des matrices culturelles particulières et qui est chargé de valeurs. La présente étude cherche à rendre visible le rôle joué par la valorisation, si ce n’est d’une conception unique et hégémonique de la modernité, à tout le moins d’un ‘style de vie moderne’ (associé à l’urbain, l’hygiène et l’éducation) dans l’accès au traitement du sida dans la région centrale du Mozambique.
Carla Teófilo Braga, Eduardo Mondlane University (EMU), Department of Anthropology, Mozambique. E-mail: cbraga56@yahoo.com
Télécharger la référence bibliographique
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)BibTeX
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- Moçambique.
- Appadurai, A., 1996, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization, Minneapolis MN:
- University of Minnesota Press.
- Biehl, J., 2005a,Vita: Life in a Zone of Social Abandonment, Berkeley: University of California
- Press.
- Biehl, J., 2005b, ‘Technologies of Invisibility: Politics of Life and Social Inequality’ in Inda,
- J.,ed., Anthropologies of Modernity, Oxford: Blackwell.
- Biehl, J., 2007,Will to Live: AIDS Therapies and the Politics of Survival, Princeton PA: Princeton
- University Press.
- Boyer, S., Clerc I., Bonono, C., Marcellin, F., Bilé, P., Ventelou, B., 2011, ‘Non-adherence to
- antiretroviral treatment and unplanned treatment interruption among people living with HIV/AIDS in
- Cameroon: individual and healthcare supply-related factors’,Social Science and Medicine72:1383-92.
- Braga, C., forthcoming, ‘Popular Ontologies of Power and Biological Citizenship: AIDS Clinics and
- Persons Living with HIV/AIDS in Central Mozambique’.
- Butchart, A., 1998, The Anatomy of Power: European Constructions of the African Body, London: Zed
- Books.
- Cliff, J. and Noormahomed, A.,1988a,‘Health as a Target: South Africa’s Destabilization of
- Mozambique’, Social Science and Medicine27 (7).
- Cliff, J. and Noormahomed, A.,1988b, ‘South African Destabilization and Health in Mozambique’,
- Review of African Political Economy42.
- CNCS,2010, Mozambique Progress Report for UNGASS (United Nations General Assembly Special Session
- on HIV and AIDS 2008-2009, Mozambique National AIDS Council.
- Comaroff, J.,1982, ‘Medicine: Symbol and Ideology’, in Wright, P. and Treacher, A, eds,
- The Problem of Medical Knowledge, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
- Eisenberg, L.,1977, ‘Disease and Illness: Distinctions between Professional and Popular Ideas of
- Sickness’, Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 1.
- Farmer, P.,2001, Infections and Inequalities: The Modern Plagues, Berkeley CA: University of
- California Press.
- Fassin, D., 2007, When Bodies Remember: Experiences and Politics of AIDS in South Africa, Berkeley
- CA: University of California Press.
- Foucault, M.,1990, The History of Sexuality: An Introduction, New York NY: Vintage Books.
- Foucault, M., 1997, ‘Society Must be Defended’: Lectures at the College de France, 1975- 1976, New
- York: Picador.
- Fry, P., 2000a, ‘Cultures of Difference: The Aftermath of Portuguese and British Colonial Policies
- in Southern Africa’, Social Anthropology 8 (2).
- Fry, P.,2000b,‘O Espirito Santo Contra o Feitiço e os Espíritos Revoltados: “Civilização” e
- “Tradição” em Moçambique’, Mana 6 (2).
- GARPPR (Global AIDS Response Progress Report), 2014, UNAIDS, www.unaids.org,
- accessed 19 September 2015.
- Africa Development, Volume XLII, No. 1, 2017
- Gilks, Ch., Crowley, S., Ekpini, R., Gove, S., Perriens, J., Souteryand, Y., Sutherland,
- D.,Vitoria, M. and Guerma, T., 2006,‘The WHO Public-health Approach to Antiretroviral Treatment
- against HIV in Resource-limited Settings’, The Lancet 368. Gupta, A., 2006, ‘Blurred Boundaries:
- The Discourse of Corruption, the Culture of Politics, and the Imagined State’, in Sharma, A. and
- Gupta, A., eds, The Anthropology of the
- State: AReader, London: Blackwell.
- Hacking, I., 1999, ‘Making Up People’, in: Biagioli, M., ed., The Science Studies Reader, London:
- Routledge.
- Hardon A., Davey S., Gerrits T. and Hodgkin C., 2006,From Access to Adherence: The Challenges of
- Antiretroviral Treatment: Studies from Botswana, Tanzania and Uganda, Geneva: WHO.
- INSIDA, 2009, INS Instituto Nacional de Saúde, Mozambique: National Survey on Prevalence,
- Behavioral Risks and Information about HIV and AIDS, Maputo: Instituto Nacional de Saúde.
- Kalofonos, I.,2010, ‘All I Eat is ARVs’: The Paradox of AIDS Treatment Interventions in Central
- Mozambique’, Medical Anthropology Quarterly 24 (3).
- Kanji, N., Kanji, N. and Manji, F., 1991, ‘From Development to Sustained Crisis: Structural
- Adjustment, Equity and Health’, Social Science and Medicine 33:985-93. Lara, J.,2009,‘Hunger,
- Transport Cost and Migration: Barriers to HAART Adherence in Central Mozambique’, Master’s Thesis,
- Seattle, University of Washington, Department
- of Public Health.
- Loubiere, S., Boyer, S., Protopopescu, C. et al., 2009, ‘Decentralization of HIV Care in Cameroon:
- Increased Access to Antiretroviral Treatment and Associated Persistent Barriers’, Health
- Policy92(2-3):165-73.
- Luedke, T. and West, H., eds, 2006, Borders and Healers: Brokering Therapeutic Resources in South
- East Africa, Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
- Mamdani, M.,1996, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism,
- Princeton PA: Princeton University Press.
- Matsinhe, C., 2005, Tabula Rasa: Dinâmica da Resposta Moçambicana ao HIV/SIDA, Maputo: Texto
- Editores.
- Micek, M.A., Gimbel-Sherr, K., Baptista, A., Matediana, E., Montoya, P., Pfeiffer, J. Melo, A.,
- Gimbel-Sherr, S., Johnson, W. and Gloyd, S., 2009, ‘Loss to Follow-up of Adults in Public HIV Care
- Systems in Central Mozambique: Identifying Obstacles to Treatment’, Journal of Acquired Immune
- Deficiency Syndrome52 (3): 397-405.
- Mills, E. et al., 2006, ‘Adherence to Antiretroviral Therapy in Sub-Saharan Africa and North
- America: a Meta-analysis’, JAMA 296 (6).
- MISAU/DAM,2004, A aderência como Alvo da Terapia Anti-retroviral: Manual de Apoio à Aderência ao
- Tratamento Antiretroviral nos Hospitais de Dia.
- Nguyen, V.K., 2009, ‘Government by Exception: Enrolment and Experimentality in Mass HIV Treatment
- Programmes in Africa’, Social Theory & Health 7 (3).
- O’Laughlin, B., 2010, ‘Questions of Health and Inequality in Mozambique’, Cadernos IESE 4.
- O’ Laughlin, B., 2015, ‘Trapped in the Prison of the Proximate: Structural HIV/AIDS Prevention in
- Southern Africa’, Review of African Political Economy 42 (145): 342-61.
- Braga: Producing and Reproducing Inequality 243
- Oksala, J., 2010, ‘Foucault’s Politicization of Ontology’, Continental Philosophy Review 43.
- Pereira, C., 2010, ‘Task-Shifting of Major Surgery to Midlevel Providers of Health Care in
- Mozambique and Tanzania: A Solution to the Crisis in Human Resources to Enhance Maternal and
- Neonatal Survival’, PhD Dissertation, Karolinska Institutet,
- Stockholm.
- Peters, P., Kambewa, D. and Walker, P., 2007, The Effects of Increasing Rates of HIV/ AIDS Related
- Illness and Death on Rural Families in Zomba District, Malawi: A Longitudinal Study. Mimeo. Final
- Report presented to the RENEWAL Program.
- Pfeiffer, J., 2013, ‘The Struggle for a Public Sector: PEPFAR in Mozambique’, in Biehl,
- J. and Petryna, A., eds, When People Come First: Critical Studies in Global Health, Princeton PA:
- Princeton University Press.
- Pfeiffer, J. and Chapman, R., 2010, ‘Anthropological Perspectives on Structural Adjustment and
- Public Health’, Annual Review of Anthropology.
- Sherr, K., Micek, M., Gimbel, S., Gloyd, S., Hughes, J., John-Steward, G., Manjate, R., Pfeiffer J.
- andWeiss, N., 2010, ‘Quality of HIV Care Provided by Non-physician Clinicians and Physicians in
- Mozambique: A Retrospective Cohort Story’, AIDS 24, suppl. 1.
- Sousa Santos, B., 2001, ‘Entre Prospero e Caliban: Colonialismo, pós-colonialismo e inter-
- identidade’, in Ramalho, M. andRibeiro, A., eds, Entre Ser e Estar: Raízes, Percursos e Discursos
- da Identidade, Porto: Edições Afrontamento.
- Sullivan, N., 2011, ‘Mediating Abundance and Scarcity: Implementing an HIV/AIDS Targeted Project
- within a Government Hospital in Tanzania’, Medical Anthropology 30 (2).
- Sumich, J., 2008a, ‘Construir uma Nação: Ideologias de modernidade da elite moçam- bicana’, Análise
- Social XII (2).
- Sumich, J., 2008b, ‘Politics after the Time of Hunger in Mozambique: A Critique of Neo- Patrimonial
- Interpretation of African Elites’, Journal of Southern African Studies 34 (1). Vaughan, M., 1991,
- Curing their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness, Stanford CA:
- Stanford University Press.
- Walt, G. and Melamed, A., 1984, Mozambique: Towards a People’s Health Service, London:
- Zed Books.
Les références
Aires, P., 1946, Programa de Acção Sanitária e Profilática, Lourenço Marques: Imprensa Nacional de
Moçambique.
Appadurai, A., 1996, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization, Minneapolis MN:
University of Minnesota Press.
Biehl, J., 2005a,Vita: Life in a Zone of Social Abandonment, Berkeley: University of California
Press.
Biehl, J., 2005b, ‘Technologies of Invisibility: Politics of Life and Social Inequality’ in Inda,
J.,ed., Anthropologies of Modernity, Oxford: Blackwell.
Biehl, J., 2007,Will to Live: AIDS Therapies and the Politics of Survival, Princeton PA: Princeton
University Press.
Boyer, S., Clerc I., Bonono, C., Marcellin, F., Bilé, P., Ventelou, B., 2011, ‘Non-adherence to
antiretroviral treatment and unplanned treatment interruption among people living with HIV/AIDS in
Cameroon: individual and healthcare supply-related factors’,Social Science and Medicine72:1383-92.
Braga, C., forthcoming, ‘Popular Ontologies of Power and Biological Citizenship: AIDS Clinics and
Persons Living with HIV/AIDS in Central Mozambique’.
Butchart, A., 1998, The Anatomy of Power: European Constructions of the African Body, London: Zed
Books.
Cliff, J. and Noormahomed, A.,1988a,‘Health as a Target: South Africa’s Destabilization of
Mozambique’, Social Science and Medicine27 (7).
Cliff, J. and Noormahomed, A.,1988b, ‘South African Destabilization and Health in Mozambique’,
Review of African Political Economy42.
CNCS,2010, Mozambique Progress Report for UNGASS (United Nations General Assembly Special Session
on HIV and AIDS 2008-2009, Mozambique National AIDS Council.
Comaroff, J.,1982, ‘Medicine: Symbol and Ideology’, in Wright, P. and Treacher, A, eds,
The Problem of Medical Knowledge, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Eisenberg, L.,1977, ‘Disease and Illness: Distinctions between Professional and Popular Ideas of
Sickness’, Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 1.
Farmer, P.,2001, Infections and Inequalities: The Modern Plagues, Berkeley CA: University of
California Press.
Fassin, D., 2007, When Bodies Remember: Experiences and Politics of AIDS in South Africa, Berkeley
CA: University of California Press.
Foucault, M.,1990, The History of Sexuality: An Introduction, New York NY: Vintage Books.
Foucault, M., 1997, ‘Society Must be Defended’: Lectures at the College de France, 1975- 1976, New
York: Picador.
Fry, P., 2000a, ‘Cultures of Difference: The Aftermath of Portuguese and British Colonial Policies
in Southern Africa’, Social Anthropology 8 (2).
Fry, P.,2000b,‘O Espirito Santo Contra o Feitiço e os Espíritos Revoltados: “Civilização” e
“Tradição” em Moçambique’, Mana 6 (2).
GARPPR (Global AIDS Response Progress Report), 2014, UNAIDS, www.unaids.org,
accessed 19 September 2015.
Africa Development, Volume XLII, No. 1, 2017
Gilks, Ch., Crowley, S., Ekpini, R., Gove, S., Perriens, J., Souteryand, Y., Sutherland,
D.,Vitoria, M. and Guerma, T., 2006,‘The WHO Public-health Approach to Antiretroviral Treatment
against HIV in Resource-limited Settings’, The Lancet 368. Gupta, A., 2006, ‘Blurred Boundaries:
The Discourse of Corruption, the Culture of Politics, and the Imagined State’, in Sharma, A. and
Gupta, A., eds, The Anthropology of the
State: AReader, London: Blackwell.
Hacking, I., 1999, ‘Making Up People’, in: Biagioli, M., ed., The Science Studies Reader, London:
Routledge.
Hardon A., Davey S., Gerrits T. and Hodgkin C., 2006,From Access to Adherence: The Challenges of
Antiretroviral Treatment: Studies from Botswana, Tanzania and Uganda, Geneva: WHO.
INSIDA, 2009, INS Instituto Nacional de Saúde, Mozambique: National Survey on Prevalence,
Behavioral Risks and Information about HIV and AIDS, Maputo: Instituto Nacional de Saúde.
Kalofonos, I.,2010, ‘All I Eat is ARVs’: The Paradox of AIDS Treatment Interventions in Central
Mozambique’, Medical Anthropology Quarterly 24 (3).
Kanji, N., Kanji, N. and Manji, F., 1991, ‘From Development to Sustained Crisis: Structural
Adjustment, Equity and Health’, Social Science and Medicine 33:985-93. Lara, J.,2009,‘Hunger,
Transport Cost and Migration: Barriers to HAART Adherence in Central Mozambique’, Master’s Thesis,
Seattle, University of Washington, Department
of Public Health.
Loubiere, S., Boyer, S., Protopopescu, C. et al., 2009, ‘Decentralization of HIV Care in Cameroon:
Increased Access to Antiretroviral Treatment and Associated Persistent Barriers’, Health
Policy92(2-3):165-73.
Luedke, T. and West, H., eds, 2006, Borders and Healers: Brokering Therapeutic Resources in South
East Africa, Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Mamdani, M.,1996, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism,
Princeton PA: Princeton University Press.
Matsinhe, C., 2005, Tabula Rasa: Dinâmica da Resposta Moçambicana ao HIV/SIDA, Maputo: Texto
Editores.
Micek, M.A., Gimbel-Sherr, K., Baptista, A., Matediana, E., Montoya, P., Pfeiffer, J. Melo, A.,
Gimbel-Sherr, S., Johnson, W. and Gloyd, S., 2009, ‘Loss to Follow-up of Adults in Public HIV Care
Systems in Central Mozambique: Identifying Obstacles to Treatment’, Journal of Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome52 (3): 397-405.
Mills, E. et al., 2006, ‘Adherence to Antiretroviral Therapy in Sub-Saharan Africa and North
America: a Meta-analysis’, JAMA 296 (6).
MISAU/DAM,2004, A aderência como Alvo da Terapia Anti-retroviral: Manual de Apoio à Aderência ao
Tratamento Antiretroviral nos Hospitais de Dia.
Nguyen, V.K., 2009, ‘Government by Exception: Enrolment and Experimentality in Mass HIV Treatment
Programmes in Africa’, Social Theory & Health 7 (3).
O’Laughlin, B., 2010, ‘Questions of Health and Inequality in Mozambique’, Cadernos IESE 4.
O’ Laughlin, B., 2015, ‘Trapped in the Prison of the Proximate: Structural HIV/AIDS Prevention in
Southern Africa’, Review of African Political Economy 42 (145): 342-61.
Braga: Producing and Reproducing Inequality 243
Oksala, J., 2010, ‘Foucault’s Politicization of Ontology’, Continental Philosophy Review 43.
Pereira, C., 2010, ‘Task-Shifting of Major Surgery to Midlevel Providers of Health Care in
Mozambique and Tanzania: A Solution to the Crisis in Human Resources to Enhance Maternal and
Neonatal Survival’, PhD Dissertation, Karolinska Institutet,
Stockholm.
Peters, P., Kambewa, D. and Walker, P., 2007, The Effects of Increasing Rates of HIV/ AIDS Related
Illness and Death on Rural Families in Zomba District, Malawi: A Longitudinal Study. Mimeo. Final
Report presented to the RENEWAL Program.
Pfeiffer, J., 2013, ‘The Struggle for a Public Sector: PEPFAR in Mozambique’, in Biehl,
J. and Petryna, A., eds, When People Come First: Critical Studies in Global Health, Princeton PA:
Princeton University Press.
Pfeiffer, J. and Chapman, R., 2010, ‘Anthropological Perspectives on Structural Adjustment and
Public Health’, Annual Review of Anthropology.
Sherr, K., Micek, M., Gimbel, S., Gloyd, S., Hughes, J., John-Steward, G., Manjate, R., Pfeiffer J.
andWeiss, N., 2010, ‘Quality of HIV Care Provided by Non-physician Clinicians and Physicians in
Mozambique: A Retrospective Cohort Story’, AIDS 24, suppl. 1.
Sousa Santos, B., 2001, ‘Entre Prospero e Caliban: Colonialismo, pós-colonialismo e inter-
identidade’, in Ramalho, M. andRibeiro, A., eds, Entre Ser e Estar: Raízes, Percursos e Discursos
da Identidade, Porto: Edições Afrontamento.
Sullivan, N., 2011, ‘Mediating Abundance and Scarcity: Implementing an HIV/AIDS Targeted Project
within a Government Hospital in Tanzania’, Medical Anthropology 30 (2).
Sumich, J., 2008a, ‘Construir uma Nação: Ideologias de modernidade da elite moçam- bicana’, Análise
Social XII (2).
Sumich, J., 2008b, ‘Politics after the Time of Hunger in Mozambique: A Critique of Neo- Patrimonial
Interpretation of African Elites’, Journal of Southern African Studies 34 (1). Vaughan, M., 1991,
Curing their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness, Stanford CA:
Stanford University Press.
Walt, G. and Melamed, A., 1984, Mozambique: Towards a People’s Health Service, London:
Zed Books.