2 - Religious citizenship: The case of the globalised Khoja
Corresponding Author(s) : Iqbal S. Akhtar
African Sociological Review,
Vol. 18 No. 1 (2014): African Sociological Review
Abstract
The African Khōjā are an Indic Muslim caste, which began migrating from Sindh and Gujarat to East Africa in the late 18th century. During the 19th and 20th centuries, their economic success in an institutionally underdeveloped region coupled with a strong religious impetus allowed them to build communal municipal institutions throughout the region that both mimicked and replaced the absent state. The insecurity of postcolonial East Africa, such as the 1964 revolution in Zanzibar and the 1972 Ugandan Asian exodus, forced the Khōjā to further expand their bureaucratic apparatus towards foreign policy- migration to Western Europe and North America and requisite institutionalization. In the 21st century, the Khōjā coordinate these communal networks from North America and Western Europe to Asia and Africa towards a religious based economic development in emerging economies. Their primary identity is religious, defined from within and outwith, using the mechanisms of globalization to further communal aims internationally within a framework of religious nationalism insensible to state nationalism.
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- Abizer, 2009. Dealing with housing Crisis in the Community. Federation Samachar, January, Issue 8, p. 5.
- Anon., 1971. Ravivārē ī. āphrikā vāsī’ō nī sabhā. Jhulphikār, 20 August.
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- Appadurai, A., 1996. Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
- Balibar, E. & Wallerstein, I., 2011. Race, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identities. Brooklyn: Verso.
- Barber, P. G. & Lem, W. eds., 2012. Migration in the 21st Century: Political Economy and Ethnography. New York: Routledge.
- Beiner, R., 1994. Theorizing Citizenship. Albany: SUNY Press.
- Borgers, O., 2008. Religious Citizenship in Classical Athens. BABESCH, Volume 83, pp. 73-97.
- Campbell, G., 2008. An Economic History of Imperial Madagascar, 1750-1895: The Rise and Fall of an Island Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Census Committee- Dar es Salaam, 2008. Khoja Shia Ithna-Asheri Jamaat Dar es Salaam Telephone Directory 2008. Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Publishing Ltd..
- Dārēsalām khōjā śī’ā ithanā’aśarī jamāt, 1969. Bīlāl muslīm mīśan. Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Printers Ltd..
- Datoo, H. W. ed., 1426 A.H./ 2005 C.E.. Somalia Refugees Granted Tanzanian Citizenship. Federation Samachar, Rabbiul Awwal/April, Issue 2, p. 23.
- Daya, M., 1433 A.H./ 2012 C.E.. NJOs can be a novel entity to provide emergency loans. Federation Samachar, Rabi’ ul Awwal/ January, 34(3), p. 3.
- Daya, M., 1996/1416. From the editor’s desk: We need to be serious about AIDS. Federation Samachar, March/Zilkaad, Volume 3, p. 3.
- Daya, M. & Chagani, M. eds., 1411 A.H./1991 C.E.. Valour and Devotion in Somalia Salvage. Federation Samachar, Ramadhan/March, 25(2).
- Devji, F., 2009. Preface. In: The Ismailis in the Colonial Era: Modernity, Empire, and Islam, 1839-1969. New York: Columbia University Press, pp. ix-xvi.
- Gupte, P., 2012. Mother India:: A Political Biography of Indira Gandhi [Paperback]. New York: Penguin USA.
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- Heater, D., 1999. What is Citizenship?. Cambridge: Polity Press.
- Hemming, P. J., 2011. Educating for religious citizenship: multiculturalism and national identity in an English multi-faith primary school. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, July, 36(3), p. 441–454.
- High Commission for Pakistan, 1971. Exemption from customs and sales tax on the goods imported into Pakistan by Muslims of Indo-Pakistan origin in East Africa wishing to settle down in Pakistan, Dar es Salaam: s.n.
- Hudson, W., 2003. Religious Citizenship. Australian Journal of Politics & History, September, 49(3), p. 425–429.
- Hudson, W. & Slaughter, S., 2007. Introduction: Globalisation and citizenship. In: W. Hudson & S. Slaughter, eds. Globalisation and Citizenship: The Transnational Challenge. Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 1-12.
- Jacobson, D., 2009. Citizenship redux: Why citizenship remains pivotal in a globalizing world. In: D. E. Davis & J. Go, eds. Political Power and Social Theory. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, pp. 281-286.
- Jaffer, H. A. M., 1991. Lessons from Somalia. Shia International, Autumn, pp. 31-35. Janmohamed, A., 2011. A Unique Event Fifty Years Ago: The Review Process and Presentation of Recommendations to Mawlana Hazar Imam for a New Ismaili Constitution in Africa. [Online] Available at: http://simerg.com/special-series-his-highness-the-aga-khan-iv/a-unique-event-fifty-years-ago-the-review-process-and-presentation-of-recommendations-to-mawlana-hazar-imam-for-a-new-ismaili-constitution- in-africa/ [Accessed 20 July 2013].
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- Kassam-Remtulla, A., 1999. (Dis)Placing Khojahs: Forging Identities, Revitalizing Islam, And Crafting Global Ismailism. Stanford: Stanford University.
- Kruse, H., 1971. The Development of the Concept of Nationality in Islam. Studies in Islam, Volume 2, pp. 7-16.
- Kymlicka, W. & Norman, W., 2000. Citizenship in Diverse Societies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. M.D. Kermali, et. al. v. Mussa G. Dhalla, et. al. (1956).
- Mamdani, M., 2006. Citizen and Subject:Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
- March, A. F., 2009. Islam and Liberal Citizenship: The Search for an Overlapping Consensus. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Māstar, H. B., 1909. Taphasīrē dhu’ā: yānē mānavantā bōdhagurū pīr sadaradīnē śī’ā īmāmī isamā’īlī khōjā māṭē racēlī. Mumba’ī: Sēlar Prīnṭīṅg Prēs.
- Miedema, S., 2006. Educating for Religious Citizenship: Religious Education as Identity Formation. In: M. de Souza, et al. eds. International Handbook of the Religious, Moral and Spiritual Dimensions in Education. Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 967-976.
- Modood, T., Zapate-Barrero, R. & Triandafyllidou, A., 2006. Multiculturalism, Muslim and Citizenship: A European Approach. Abingdon: Routledge.
- Naeem, M. Q., 1980. Bibliographic Soundings in Nineteenth Century Pan-Islam in South Asia. Islamic Quarterly, Volume 1-2.
- Nānjiāṇī, S., 1892. Khōjā Vr̥ttānt. Ahmedabad: Dhī Amarasinhajī Prī. Prēs.
- Olinga, M., 2010. Asians in Kenya: Settling and attempts to come to terms with African nationalism.
- Commonwealth Essays and Studies, Spring, Volume 15/16, pp. 27-41
- Olson, M., 1971. The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups.
- Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
- Prince, R. J. & Marsland, R. eds., 2013. Making and Unmaking Public Health in Africa: Ethnographic and Historical Perspectives. Athens: Ohio University Press.
- Purohit, T., 2012. The Aga Khan Case: Religion and Identity in Colonial India. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
- Ramji, N. M. A., 1971. Panjetani Welfare Society, Mombasa: The Khoja Shia Ithna- Asheri Supreme Council.
- Rashid, A. & Rashid, T., 1411 A.H./1991 C.E.. Allahu-Akbar: Captain Rashid Steers Operation Ghadeer to Success. Insight, 1/17 Rajab/January, pp. 1-7.
- Robertson, R., 1992. Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture. London: SAGE Publications Ltd.
- Roy, O., 2006. Globalized Islam: The Search for a New Ummah. New York: Columbia University Press.
- Ryder, B., 2006. The Canadian Conception of Equal Religious Citizenship. In: R. Moon ed. Law and Religious Pluralism in Canada. Vancouver: UBC Press, pp. 87-109.
- Sassen, S., 2009. Incompleteness and the possibility of making: Towards denationalized citizenship?. In: D. E. Davis & J. Go, eds. Political Power and Social Theory. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, p. 229–258.
- Secretariat, 1970. Ithna-Asheries in Uganda: Consequence of the trade licensing and immigration acts on non-citizens and the task ahead, Mombasa: Khoja Shia Ithna-Asheri Supreme Council.
- Soysal, Y. N., 1997. Changing Parameters of Citizenship and Claims-Making: Organized Islam in European Public Spheres. Theory and Society, August, 26(4), pp. 509-527.
- Steinberg, J., 2011. Isma’ili Modern: Globalization and Identity in a Muslim Community. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.
- The Africa Federation of Khoja Shia Ithna-Asheri Jamaats, 1993-2003. The Constitution of the Federation of Khoja Shia Ithna Asheri Jamaats of Africa, Dar es Salaam and Mombasa: s.n.
- UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 1972. Action to be taken on the expulsion of Asians holding UK passports from Uganda, London: s.n.
- Valpy, M., 2002. The World of the Aga Khan. The Globe and Mail (Canada), 2 February, p. F3.
References
Abizer, 2009. Dealing with housing Crisis in the Community. Federation Samachar, January, Issue 8, p. 5.
Anon., 1971. Ravivārē ī. āphrikā vāsī’ō nī sabhā. Jhulphikār, 20 August.
Anon., 1992. The 18th Conference. Federation Samachar, October, 27(1), pp. 19-23. Anon., 2011. Historique. [Online] Available at: http://www.croi.info/index.php/historique [Accessed 26 October 2013].
Anon., n.d. As-Sadiq Housing Project in Dar es Salaam. [Online] Available at: http://www.world-federation.org/Appeals/AppealHomePageID162 [Accessed 26 October 2013].
Anon., Sapṭēmbar 1905/ Rajab 1323. Khōjā śīā imāmī ismāilīā kāunsīlnā kāydānī buk: prakaraṇ pahēlũ tathā bījũ. Jangbār: Husēnō chāpkhānũ.
Appadurai, A., 1996. Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Balibar, E. & Wallerstein, I., 2011. Race, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identities. Brooklyn: Verso.
Barber, P. G. & Lem, W. eds., 2012. Migration in the 21st Century: Political Economy and Ethnography. New York: Routledge.
Beiner, R., 1994. Theorizing Citizenship. Albany: SUNY Press.
Borgers, O., 2008. Religious Citizenship in Classical Athens. BABESCH, Volume 83, pp. 73-97.
Campbell, G., 2008. An Economic History of Imperial Madagascar, 1750-1895: The Rise and Fall of an Island Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Census Committee- Dar es Salaam, 2008. Khoja Shia Ithna-Asheri Jamaat Dar es Salaam Telephone Directory 2008. Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Publishing Ltd..
Dārēsalām khōjā śī’ā ithanā’aśarī jamāt, 1969. Bīlāl muslīm mīśan. Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Printers Ltd..
Datoo, H. W. ed., 1426 A.H./ 2005 C.E.. Somalia Refugees Granted Tanzanian Citizenship. Federation Samachar, Rabbiul Awwal/April, Issue 2, p. 23.
Daya, M., 1433 A.H./ 2012 C.E.. NJOs can be a novel entity to provide emergency loans. Federation Samachar, Rabi’ ul Awwal/ January, 34(3), p. 3.
Daya, M., 1996/1416. From the editor’s desk: We need to be serious about AIDS. Federation Samachar, March/Zilkaad, Volume 3, p. 3.
Daya, M. & Chagani, M. eds., 1411 A.H./1991 C.E.. Valour and Devotion in Somalia Salvage. Federation Samachar, Ramadhan/March, 25(2).
Devji, F., 2009. Preface. In: The Ismailis in the Colonial Era: Modernity, Empire, and Islam, 1839-1969. New York: Columbia University Press, pp. ix-xvi.
Gupte, P., 2012. Mother India:: A Political Biography of Indira Gandhi [Paperback]. New York: Penguin USA.
Hasnani, A., 1987. SHRE 2012. [Online] Available at: https://groups.google.com/forum/#!topic/shre2012/gmLj- NCNwfw [Accessed July 2013].
Heater, D., 1999. What is Citizenship?. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Hemming, P. J., 2011. Educating for religious citizenship: multiculturalism and national identity in an English multi-faith primary school. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, July, 36(3), p. 441–454.
High Commission for Pakistan, 1971. Exemption from customs and sales tax on the goods imported into Pakistan by Muslims of Indo-Pakistan origin in East Africa wishing to settle down in Pakistan, Dar es Salaam: s.n.
Hudson, W., 2003. Religious Citizenship. Australian Journal of Politics & History, September, 49(3), p. 425–429.
Hudson, W. & Slaughter, S., 2007. Introduction: Globalisation and citizenship. In: W. Hudson & S. Slaughter, eds. Globalisation and Citizenship: The Transnational Challenge. Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 1-12.
Jacobson, D., 2009. Citizenship redux: Why citizenship remains pivotal in a globalizing world. In: D. E. Davis & J. Go, eds. Political Power and Social Theory. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, pp. 281-286.
Jaffer, H. A. M., 1991. Lessons from Somalia. Shia International, Autumn, pp. 31-35. Janmohamed, A., 2011. A Unique Event Fifty Years Ago: The Review Process and Presentation of Recommendations to Mawlana Hazar Imam for a New Ismaili Constitution in Africa. [Online] Available at: http://simerg.com/special-series-his-highness-the-aga-khan-iv/a-unique-event-fifty-years-ago-the-review-process-and-presentation-of-recommendations-to-mawlana-hazar-imam-for-a-new-ismaili-constitution- in-africa/ [Accessed 20 July 2013].
Kabeer, N., 2006. Citizenship, Affiliation and Exclusion: Perspectives from the South. IDS Bulletin, October, 37(4), p. 91–101.
Kassam-Remtulla, A., 1999. (Dis)Placing Khojahs: Forging Identities, Revitalizing Islam, And Crafting Global Ismailism. Stanford: Stanford University.
Kruse, H., 1971. The Development of the Concept of Nationality in Islam. Studies in Islam, Volume 2, pp. 7-16.
Kymlicka, W. & Norman, W., 2000. Citizenship in Diverse Societies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. M.D. Kermali, et. al. v. Mussa G. Dhalla, et. al. (1956).
Mamdani, M., 2006. Citizen and Subject:Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
March, A. F., 2009. Islam and Liberal Citizenship: The Search for an Overlapping Consensus. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Māstar, H. B., 1909. Taphasīrē dhu’ā: yānē mānavantā bōdhagurū pīr sadaradīnē śī’ā īmāmī isamā’īlī khōjā māṭē racēlī. Mumba’ī: Sēlar Prīnṭīṅg Prēs.
Miedema, S., 2006. Educating for Religious Citizenship: Religious Education as Identity Formation. In: M. de Souza, et al. eds. International Handbook of the Religious, Moral and Spiritual Dimensions in Education. Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 967-976.
Modood, T., Zapate-Barrero, R. & Triandafyllidou, A., 2006. Multiculturalism, Muslim and Citizenship: A European Approach. Abingdon: Routledge.
Naeem, M. Q., 1980. Bibliographic Soundings in Nineteenth Century Pan-Islam in South Asia. Islamic Quarterly, Volume 1-2.
Nānjiāṇī, S., 1892. Khōjā Vr̥ttānt. Ahmedabad: Dhī Amarasinhajī Prī. Prēs.
Olinga, M., 2010. Asians in Kenya: Settling and attempts to come to terms with African nationalism.
Commonwealth Essays and Studies, Spring, Volume 15/16, pp. 27-41
Olson, M., 1971. The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Prince, R. J. & Marsland, R. eds., 2013. Making and Unmaking Public Health in Africa: Ethnographic and Historical Perspectives. Athens: Ohio University Press.
Purohit, T., 2012. The Aga Khan Case: Religion and Identity in Colonial India. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Ramji, N. M. A., 1971. Panjetani Welfare Society, Mombasa: The Khoja Shia Ithna- Asheri Supreme Council.
Rashid, A. & Rashid, T., 1411 A.H./1991 C.E.. Allahu-Akbar: Captain Rashid Steers Operation Ghadeer to Success. Insight, 1/17 Rajab/January, pp. 1-7.
Robertson, R., 1992. Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture. London: SAGE Publications Ltd.
Roy, O., 2006. Globalized Islam: The Search for a New Ummah. New York: Columbia University Press.
Ryder, B., 2006. The Canadian Conception of Equal Religious Citizenship. In: R. Moon ed. Law and Religious Pluralism in Canada. Vancouver: UBC Press, pp. 87-109.
Sassen, S., 2009. Incompleteness and the possibility of making: Towards denationalized citizenship?. In: D. E. Davis & J. Go, eds. Political Power and Social Theory. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, p. 229–258.
Secretariat, 1970. Ithna-Asheries in Uganda: Consequence of the trade licensing and immigration acts on non-citizens and the task ahead, Mombasa: Khoja Shia Ithna-Asheri Supreme Council.
Soysal, Y. N., 1997. Changing Parameters of Citizenship and Claims-Making: Organized Islam in European Public Spheres. Theory and Society, August, 26(4), pp. 509-527.
Steinberg, J., 2011. Isma’ili Modern: Globalization and Identity in a Muslim Community. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.
The Africa Federation of Khoja Shia Ithna-Asheri Jamaats, 1993-2003. The Constitution of the Federation of Khoja Shia Ithna Asheri Jamaats of Africa, Dar es Salaam and Mombasa: s.n.
UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 1972. Action to be taken on the expulsion of Asians holding UK passports from Uganda, London: s.n.
Valpy, M., 2002. The World of the Aga Khan. The Globe and Mail (Canada), 2 February, p. F3.