1 - The Politics of ‘Hope’ and ‘Despair’: Generational Dimensions to Igbo Nationalism in Post-Civil War Nigeria
Corresponding Author(s) : Godwin Onuoha
Revue africaine de sociologie,
Vol. 18 No 1 (2014): Revue africaine de sociologie
Résumé
Cet article examine le concept de «générations» comme l’une des principales caractéristiques du nationalisme contemporain Igbo, et que celui qui a reçu relativement peu ou pas d’attention dans la littérature est l’après-guerre civile Igbo nationalisme au Nigeria. S’appuyant sur les activités de Ohanaeze Ndi Igbo- le groupe socio-politique sommet dans Igboland- et le Mouvement pour la réalisation de l’État souverain du Biafra (MASSOB) - une deuxième génération du mouvement nationaliste Igbo, cet article examine la dynamique des tensions générationnelles entre les groupes Igbo dirigés par des jeunes et de l’élite dirigée dans Igbo. D’une part, l’agence politique de Ohanaeze Ndi Igbo est tracée généalogique aux impératifs de la politique patrimoniale de l’Etat nigérian, le besoin de jouer la «politique du centre» et ré-intégrer les Igbo dans les grands courants politiques dans le post-tant civil époque de la guerre. D’autre part, le projet MASSOB est enracinée dans la Guerre de sécession avortée pour Igbo autodétermination entre 1967 et 1970 Il rejette un processus dirigé par l’État, vise la réorganisation de l’équilibre des générations du pouvoir, et, finalement, une sortie de l’ethnie Igbo dans un arrangement politique et administrative de remplacement. Ces différences générationnelles des tensions et offrir un aperçu de la transformation de la politique locale et l’évolution des configurations de pouvoir et d’autorité dans nos jours Igbo, qui oppose un mouvement de jeunesse émergente contre un établissement durable Igbo dans le contexte plus large de la politique de l’identité ethnique au Nigeria.
Mots-clés
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- Adekson, O., 2004, The ‘Civil Society’ Problematique: Deconstructing Civility and Southern Nigeria’s Ethnic Radicalisation. London and New York: Routledge.
- Agbu, O., 2004, Ethnic Militias and the Threat to Democracy in Post-Transition Nigeria. Research Report no. 127. Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.
- Ahanotu, A., 1982, “The Role of Ethnic Unions in the Development of Southern Nigeria, 1916 1966”, in B. Obichere (ed.), Studies in Southern Nigerian History, London: Frank Cass, pp. 155-174.
- Akinyele, R. T., 2001, “Ethnic Militancy and National Stability in Nigeria: A Case of the Oodua People’s Congress”, African Affairs, Vol. 100, No. 401, pp. 623-640.
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- De Boeck, F., 1999, “Domesticating Diamonds and Dollars: Identity, Expenditure and Sharing in Southwestern Zaire (1984–1997)”, in B. Meyer and P. Geschiere (eds.), Globalization and Identity: Dialectics of Flow and Closure. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 177–209.
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- Gore, C. and Pratten, D., 2003, “The Politics of Plunder: the Rhetoric of Order and Disorder in Southern Nigeria”, African Affairs, Vol. 102, No. 407, pp. 211-240.
- Hall, T. and H. Montgomery., 2000, “Home and Away: “Childhood, “Youth” and Young People”. Anthropology Today, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 13-15.
- Hansen, K. T., 2008, ‘Introduction: Youth and the City’, in K. T. Hansen et al, Youth and City in the Global South. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, pp. 3-22.
- Honwana, C., and F. De Boeck., 2005, Makers and Breakers: Children & Youth in Postcolonial Africa.Dakar: CODESRIA.
- Iheanacho, D. A., 2004, “Declaration of our Demand for a Sovereign state of Biafra”, MASSOB, 21 May <http://www.kwenu.com/biafra/massob/aba_declaration. htm>, accessed 7. 9. 2009.
- Ikelegbe, A., 2006, “Beyond the Threshold of Civil Struggle: Youth Militancy and The Militarization of the Resource Conflicts in the Niger-delta Region of Nigeria”, African Studies Monographs, Vol. 27, No. 3, pp. 87-122.
- IRIN News., 2005, “NIGERIA: Government Cracks Down on Biafra Secessionist Movement”, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, <http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=53971>, accessed 21. 1. 2008.
- Irukwu, J. O., 2007, Nation Building and Ethnic Organizations: The Case of Ohanaeze in Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum Books.
- Kaplan, R., 1994, “The Coming Anarchy”, The Atlantic Monthly, February. National Youth Policy., 2001, Abuja. Available at: http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/documents/tc_nigeria_nyp_2001.pdf (Accessed: 15 September 2011).
- Kertzer, D., 1983, “Generation as a Sociological Problem”, Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 9, pp. 125-149.
- Le Muer, P., 2008, “Between Emancipation and Patronage: Changing Intergenerational Re;ationships in Central Benin”, in E, Alber., S, van der Geest., and S. R. Whyte., (eds.), 2008, Generations in Africa: Connections and Conflicts, Munster: LIT Verlag, pp. 209-235.
- Mannheim, K., [1927] 1952, “The Problem of Generations”, in Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, New York: Oxford University Press.
- Mohiddin, A., 2007, “African Leadership: The Succeeding Generation’s Challenges and Opportunities”, Conflict Trends, Issue 2, Umhlanga Rocks, South Africa: African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes (ACCORD).
- Nolte, I., 2004, ‘Identity and Violence: The Politics of Youth in Ijebu-Remo, Nigeria’, Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 42, No. 1, pp. 61-89.
- Obi, C., 2006, Generational Dimensions to Struggles for Resource Control in the Niger Delta: Prospects for the Nation-State Project in Nigeria. Dakar: CODESRIA Monograph Series.
- Ohanaeze Ndi Igbo., 2001, “On Biafra: Violations of the Human and Civil Rights of Ndi Igbo in the Federation of Nigeria”, West Africa Review, Vol. 2, No. 2, <http://www.westafricareview.com/vol2.2/2.2war.htm>, accessed 4. 8. 2009.
- Olukoshi, A., 2005, “Changing Patterns of Politics in Africa”, in A. Boron & G. Lechini (eds.), Politics and Social Movements in an Hegemonic World: Lessons from Africa, Asia and Latin America. Buenos Aires: CLACSO Books, pp. 177-201.
- Osaghae, E., Ikelegbe A., Olarinmoye, O., and Okhonmina, S., 2007, Youth Militias, Self-Determination and Resource Control Struggles in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. Dakar: Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa.
- Ota, E. N., 1995, “Ethnic Nationalism in Nigeria: A Comparative Study of the Ibibio and the Ibo Unions, 1928-1966”, University of Calabar: Unpublished PhD Thesis.
- Roth, C., “Shameful! The Inverted Intergenerational Contract in Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso”, in E, Alber., S, van der Geest., and S. R. Whyte., (eds.), 2008, Generations in Africa: Connections and Conflicts, Munster: LIT Verlag, pp. 47- 69.
- Vigh, H., 2006, “Social Death and Violent Life Chances”, in C. Christainsen., M. Utas., and H, Vigh (eds.), Navigating Youth, Generating Adulthood: Social Becoming in an African Context, Uppsala: Nordic Africa Institute, pp. 31-60.
- Voice of Biafra International (VOBI), 2009, News Analysis Segment of the 23 January <http://www.biafraland.com/NewsAnalysis2009/newsanalysis012309.htm>, accessed 28. 8. 2009.
- West African Pilot, 1944, 19 June. Cited in Van den Bersselaar, D., 1998, In Search of Igbo Identity: Language, Culture and Politics in Nigeria, 1900-1966. Leiden: Universiteitsdrukkerij Universiteit Leiden, p. 267.
- West African Pilot, 1946, 23 January. Cited in Van den Bersselaar, D., 1998, In Search of Igbo Identity: Language, Culture and Politics in Nigeria, 1900-1966. Leiden: Universiteitsdrukkerij Universiteit Leiden, p. 268
- Wyn, J., and R, White., 1997, Rethinking Youth. London: Sage. Cited in C. Obi., 2006, Generational Dimensions to Struggles for Resource Control in the Niger Delta: Prospects for the Nation-State Project in Nigeria. Dakar: CODESRIA Monograph Series).
Les références
Adebanwi, W., 2004, “Democracy and Violence: The Challenge of Communal Clashes”, in A. Agbaje, L. Diamond & E. Onwudiwe, (eds). Nigeria and the Struggle for Democracy and Good Governance: A Festschrift for Oyeleye Oyediran. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press, pp. 327-348.
Adekson, O., 2004, The ‘Civil Society’ Problematique: Deconstructing Civility and Southern Nigeria’s Ethnic Radicalisation. London and New York: Routledge.
Agbu, O., 2004, Ethnic Militias and the Threat to Democracy in Post-Transition Nigeria. Research Report no. 127. Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.
Ahanotu, A., 1982, “The Role of Ethnic Unions in the Development of Southern Nigeria, 1916 1966”, in B. Obichere (ed.), Studies in Southern Nigerian History, London: Frank Cass, pp. 155-174.
Akinyele, R. T., 2001, “Ethnic Militancy and National Stability in Nigeria: A Case of the Oodua People’s Congress”, African Affairs, Vol. 100, No. 401, pp. 623-640.
Alber, E., van der Geest, S., and Whyte, S. R., (eds.), 2008, Generations in Africa: Connections and Conflicts, Munster: LIT Verlag.
Azikiwe, N., 1970, My Odyssey: An Autobigraphy. New York: C. Hurst and Company. Bellagamba, A., 2008, “Today’s Elders, Yesterday’s Youth: Generations and Politics in 20th Century Gambia”, in E, Alber., S, van der Geest., and S. R. Whyte., (eds.), 2008, Generations in Africa: Connections and Conflicts, Munster: LIT Verlag, pp. 237-265. Braumgart, R., and Braumgart, M., 1986, “Life-Course and Generational Politics”, Annual Review of Sociology, Vol 12, pp. 205-231.
Cole,J.,2004,“Fresh Contact inTamatave,Magadascar: Sex,Money and Intergenerational Transformation”, American Ethnologist, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 573-588.
De Boeck, F., 1999, “Domesticating Diamonds and Dollars: Identity, Expenditure and Sharing in Southwestern Zaire (1984–1997)”, in B. Meyer and P. Geschiere (eds.), Globalization and Identity: Dialectics of Flow and Closure. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 177–209.
Durham, D., 2000, “Youth and the Social Imagination in Africa: Introduction”, Anthropological Quarterly, Vol. 73, No. 3, pp. 113-120.
Durham, D., 2004, “Disappearing Youth: Youth as a Social Shifter in Botswana”, American Ethnologist, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 589-605.
Ejinkeonye, U., 2005, “Nigeria: A Meeting of the Minds”, Conversation with Joe Achuzia. The Chinua Achebe Foundation, http://magazine.biafranigeriaworld.
com/chinua-achebe/2005nov28-chinua-achebe-foundation-col-joe-achuzia. html. (Accessed 21 August 2008).
El-Kenz, A., 1996, “Youth and Violence”, in Stephen Ellis (ed.), Africa Now: People, Policies and Institutions. The Hague, DGIS and London: James Currey Limited, pp. 273-287. (Cited in Eghosa, O., A. Ikelegbe., O. Olarinmoye & S. Okhonmina (2007), Youth Militias, Self-Determination and Resource Control Struggles in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. Dakar: Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa).
Gore, C. and Pratten, D., 2003, “The Politics of Plunder: the Rhetoric of Order and Disorder in Southern Nigeria”, African Affairs, Vol. 102, No. 407, pp. 211-240.
Hall, T. and H. Montgomery., 2000, “Home and Away: “Childhood, “Youth” and Young People”. Anthropology Today, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 13-15.
Hansen, K. T., 2008, ‘Introduction: Youth and the City’, in K. T. Hansen et al, Youth and City in the Global South. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, pp. 3-22.
Honwana, C., and F. De Boeck., 2005, Makers and Breakers: Children & Youth in Postcolonial Africa.Dakar: CODESRIA.
Iheanacho, D. A., 2004, “Declaration of our Demand for a Sovereign state of Biafra”, MASSOB, 21 May <http://www.kwenu.com/biafra/massob/aba_declaration. htm>, accessed 7. 9. 2009.
Ikelegbe, A., 2006, “Beyond the Threshold of Civil Struggle: Youth Militancy and The Militarization of the Resource Conflicts in the Niger-delta Region of Nigeria”, African Studies Monographs, Vol. 27, No. 3, pp. 87-122.
IRIN News., 2005, “NIGERIA: Government Cracks Down on Biafra Secessionist Movement”, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, <http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=53971>, accessed 21. 1. 2008.
Irukwu, J. O., 2007, Nation Building and Ethnic Organizations: The Case of Ohanaeze in Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum Books.
Kaplan, R., 1994, “The Coming Anarchy”, The Atlantic Monthly, February. National Youth Policy., 2001, Abuja. Available at: http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/documents/tc_nigeria_nyp_2001.pdf (Accessed: 15 September 2011).
Kertzer, D., 1983, “Generation as a Sociological Problem”, Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 9, pp. 125-149.
Le Muer, P., 2008, “Between Emancipation and Patronage: Changing Intergenerational Re;ationships in Central Benin”, in E, Alber., S, van der Geest., and S. R. Whyte., (eds.), 2008, Generations in Africa: Connections and Conflicts, Munster: LIT Verlag, pp. 209-235.
Mannheim, K., [1927] 1952, “The Problem of Generations”, in Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, New York: Oxford University Press.
Mohiddin, A., 2007, “African Leadership: The Succeeding Generation’s Challenges and Opportunities”, Conflict Trends, Issue 2, Umhlanga Rocks, South Africa: African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes (ACCORD).
Nolte, I., 2004, ‘Identity and Violence: The Politics of Youth in Ijebu-Remo, Nigeria’, Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 42, No. 1, pp. 61-89.
Obi, C., 2006, Generational Dimensions to Struggles for Resource Control in the Niger Delta: Prospects for the Nation-State Project in Nigeria. Dakar: CODESRIA Monograph Series.
Ohanaeze Ndi Igbo., 2001, “On Biafra: Violations of the Human and Civil Rights of Ndi Igbo in the Federation of Nigeria”, West Africa Review, Vol. 2, No. 2, <http://www.westafricareview.com/vol2.2/2.2war.htm>, accessed 4. 8. 2009.
Olukoshi, A., 2005, “Changing Patterns of Politics in Africa”, in A. Boron & G. Lechini (eds.), Politics and Social Movements in an Hegemonic World: Lessons from Africa, Asia and Latin America. Buenos Aires: CLACSO Books, pp. 177-201.
Osaghae, E., Ikelegbe A., Olarinmoye, O., and Okhonmina, S., 2007, Youth Militias, Self-Determination and Resource Control Struggles in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. Dakar: Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa.
Ota, E. N., 1995, “Ethnic Nationalism in Nigeria: A Comparative Study of the Ibibio and the Ibo Unions, 1928-1966”, University of Calabar: Unpublished PhD Thesis.
Roth, C., “Shameful! The Inverted Intergenerational Contract in Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso”, in E, Alber., S, van der Geest., and S. R. Whyte., (eds.), 2008, Generations in Africa: Connections and Conflicts, Munster: LIT Verlag, pp. 47- 69.
Vigh, H., 2006, “Social Death and Violent Life Chances”, in C. Christainsen., M. Utas., and H, Vigh (eds.), Navigating Youth, Generating Adulthood: Social Becoming in an African Context, Uppsala: Nordic Africa Institute, pp. 31-60.
Voice of Biafra International (VOBI), 2009, News Analysis Segment of the 23 January <http://www.biafraland.com/NewsAnalysis2009/newsanalysis012309.htm>, accessed 28. 8. 2009.
West African Pilot, 1944, 19 June. Cited in Van den Bersselaar, D., 1998, In Search of Igbo Identity: Language, Culture and Politics in Nigeria, 1900-1966. Leiden: Universiteitsdrukkerij Universiteit Leiden, p. 267.
West African Pilot, 1946, 23 January. Cited in Van den Bersselaar, D., 1998, In Search of Igbo Identity: Language, Culture and Politics in Nigeria, 1900-1966. Leiden: Universiteitsdrukkerij Universiteit Leiden, p. 268
Wyn, J., and R, White., 1997, Rethinking Youth. London: Sage. Cited in C. Obi., 2006, Generational Dimensions to Struggles for Resource Control in the Niger Delta: Prospects for the Nation-State Project in Nigeria. Dakar: CODESRIA Monograph Series).