2- Between Ethnic Essentialism and Environmental Racism: Oil and the ‘Glocalisation’ of Environmental Justice Discourse in Nigeria
Corresponding Author(s) : Wilson Akpan
African Sociological Review,
Vol. 10 No. 2 (2006): African Sociological Review
Abstract
This paper examines the ‘state’ of environmental justice discourse in Nigeria, focussing on the ways in which the concept of environmental racism has been deployed to explain corporate and state conduct in the upstream petroleum sector. The paper shows how, in trying to make environmental racism relevant to the debates on socio-ecological abuses, and attendant grassroots resistance in Nigeria, some analysts have inserted it into ethnic discourse. Thus, what might have been a
problematic concept in the Nigerian context now sits within a ‘familiar’, albeit not wholly appropriate framework – an ethnic model, which typically portrays grassroots struggles in sub-Saharan Africa as driven by invidious primordial concerns. Based on a recent ethnographic study conducted in some of Nigeria’s better known oil-producing communities, and on relevant secondary data, the paper shows how the application of environmental racism at once illuminates and distorts the social character of petroleum-related grassroots struggles in Nigeria. Importantly, it shows how decades of naked greed, failed ‘background institutions’ and disastrous political governance in Nigeria have, paradoxically, not sufficiently instigated in the scholarly community a fundamental rethink of the sociology of dispossession in Nigeria.
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- Abe, F. and Ayodele, S., 1986, ‘Oil Exploration, Drilling and the Environment’, inAdeniyi, E. O. and Bello-Imam, I. B., eds., Development and the Environment: Proceedings of a National Conference, Ibadan: NISER. 83-100.
- Adediran, J. A., Taiwo, L. B., Sobulo, R. A., Ogunfowokan, A. O. and Fatoki, O. S., 2004, ‘Impact Of The Effluent Discharge From A Brewery
- Plant On Three Communities In Ibadan Municipality, South Western Nigeria’, Global Journal Pure and Applied Science, 10 (1), 211-216.
- Agbola, T. and Alabi, M., 2003, ‘Political Economy of Resources Development, Environmental Injustice and Selective Victimization: A Case Study of the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria’, In
- Agyeman, J., Bullard, R. D. and Evans, B., eds., Just Sustainabilities: Development in an Unequal World, London: Earthscan, 270-288.
- Agiobenebo, T. J. and Aribaolanari, N., 2001, ‘Rights, Resource Control and Polit- ico-Economic Equilibrium of the Market for National Union’, in Nigerian Economic Society (NES, ed.), Natural Resource Use, the Environment and Sustainable Development: Selected Papers Presented at the 2001 Annual Conference, Ibadan: Nigerian Economic Society, 413-456.
- Akpan, W., 2006, ‘Between Responsibility and Rhetoric: Some Consequences of CSR Practice in Nigeria’s Oil Province’, Development Southern Africa, 23 (2), June. 223-240.
- Akpan, W., 2005, ‘Putting Oil First? Some Ethnographic Aspects of Petroleum-related Land Use Controversies in Nigeria’, African Sociological Review, 9 (2). 134-152.
- Apter, A., 2005, The Pan-African Nation: Oil and the Spectacle of Culture in Nigeria, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
- Austin, R. and Schill, M., 1994, ‘Black, Brown, Red, and Poisoned’, in Bullard, R. D., ed., Unequal Protection: Environmental Justice and Communities of Color, San Francisco: Sierra Club, 53-74.
- Bakan, J., 2004, The Corporation: The Pathological Pursuit of Profit and Power, New York: Free Press.
- Bassey, D., 2004, ‘IBB Distorted Abuja Master Plan’, Daily Independent Online, Lagos, Nigeria, March 26, http://odili.net/news/source/2004/mar/26/307.html. [Accessed March 30, 2004].
- Bassey, N., 1997, Oilwatching in South America, Benin City: Environmental Rights Action.
- Benka-Coker, M. O., Metseagharun, W. and Ekundayo, J. A., 1996, ‘Abundance of Sulphate-Reducing Bacteria in Niger Delta Oilfield Waters’, Bioresource Technology 54, 151-154.
- Berry, S. S., 1987, ‘Oil and the Disappearing Peasantry: Accumulation, Differenti- ation, and Underdevelopment in Western Nigeria’, in Watts, M. J., ed., State, Oil, and Agriculture in Nigeria, Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 202-222.
- Bullard, R. D., 1994, ‘Introduction’, in Bullard, R. D., ed., Unequal Protection: Environmental Justice and Communities of Color, San Francisco: Sierra Club, xv-viii.
- Bullard, R. D., 2000, Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class, and Environmental Quality, Third Edition, Boulder, Colorado: Westview.
- Cesarz, E., Morrison, J. S. and Cooke, J., 2003, ‘Alienation and Militancy in Nigeria’s Niger Delta’, Africa Notes, No. 16, May, 1-4.
- Davies, W. J., 2001, Oil and Gas Investment in Nigeria, London: CWC Publishing. Dorzback, R., 2001, ‘Air Permits and Environmental Justice’, September 15,http://www.apcd.org/permit/t5tutorial/t5ej/tsld001.htm (Accessed June 10, 2006).
- Ekoriko, M., 1997, ‘The Ethical Case Against Transnationals in the Third World: The Case of the Oil Industry in Nigeria’, Paper presented at the Cambridge Professional Environmental Seminar on Managing Sustainability Dilemmas in the Developing World, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. February 19.
- Environment Canada, 2001, ‘Flaring in the Petroleum Industry’, http://www.ec.gc.ca/energ/oilgas/flaring/flaring_general2_e.htm(Accessed May 23, 2005).
- Frontline World, 2003, ‘Nigeria - The Road North’, Alexandria, Virginia: PBS, http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/nigeria/facts.html. [Accessed July 15, 2005].
- Frynas, J. G., 2000, Oil in Nigeria: Conflict and Litigation between Oil Companies and Village Communities, Hamburg: Lit Verlag Munster.
- Gao, Z., 2003, ‘Environmental Regulation of the Oil and Gas Industries’, CEPMLP Internet Journal, Vol. 2, 11,
- http://www.dundee.ac.uk/cepmlp/journal/html/article2-11.html. [Accessed February 10, 2004].
- Gbadegesin, S., 2001, ‘Multinational Corporations, Developed Nations, and Environ- mental Racism: Toxic Waste, Exploration, and Eco-Catastrophe’, in Westra, L. and Lawson, B. E., eds., Faces of Environmental Racism: Confronting Issues of Global Justice, Second Edition, New York: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers.
- Gutierrez, E., 1997, ‘Orinoco Natives Confront Big Oil, Venezuela’, Albion Monitor, Sebastopol, California, USA, April 15. Http://www.monitor.net/monitor/ 9704a/oilwarao.html (Accessed August 12,2005).
- Hargrove, E., 2001, ‘Foreword’, in Westra, L. and Lawson, B. E., eds., Faces of Environmental Racism: Confronting Issues of Global Justice, Second Edition,New York: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Ix-xiii.
- Human Rights Watch (HRW), 1999, The Price of Oil: Corporate Responsibility and Human Rights Violations in Nigeria’s Oil Producing Communities, New York: Human Rights Watch.
- Human Rights Watch (HRW), 2002, The Niger Delta: No Democratic Dividend, Washington, DC: Human Rights Watch.
- Igwe, B. U. N. and Edozien, L. N. O., 1986, ‘Nigeria’s Mineral Resources and Strat- egies for Forward and Backward Integration’, in Adeniyi, E. O. and Bello-Imam, I. B., eds., Development and the Environment: Proceedings of a National Conference, Ibadan: NISER, 121-165.
- International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF), 2004, ‘Oil Tanker Spill Statistics: 2003’, ITOPF, http://www.itopf.com/datapack04.pdf. (Accessed December 27, 2004).
- Ishisone, M., 2004, ‘Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta: The Potential Benefits of its Reduction on the Local Economy and Environment’,
- http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~es196/projects/2004final/Ishone.pdf. (Accessed December 27,2004).
- Mitee, L., 2002, ‘The Centrality of Self-Identity in Indigenous Peoples’ Struggles: The Struggle of the Ogoni People’, Paper Presented at the Indigenous Rights in the Commonwealth Project Africa Regional Expert Meeting, Cape Town, South Africa, October 16-18, http://www.cpsu.org.uk/downloads/Ledum%20Mitee.pdf. (Accessed May 22, 2005).
- NEST, 1991, Nigeria’s Threatened Environment: A National Profile, Ibadan: Nigerian Environmental
- Study/Action Team (NEST).
- Obi, C., 2005, ‘Environmental Movements in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Political Ecology of Power and Conflict’, Civil Society and Development Programme Paper No. 15, January, UNRISD.
- Obi, C., 1997, Structural Adjustment, Oil and Popular Struggles: The Deepening Crisis of State Legitimacy in Nigeria, Dakar: CODESRIA.
- Oguejiofor, G. C., 2004, ‘Gas Flaring in Nigeria: Some Aspects for Accelerated Devel- opment of SasolChevron GTL Plant at Escravos’, Awka: Nnamdi Azikiwe University of Science and Technology, Department of Chemical Engineering.
- Olukoya, S., 2003, ‘Job-seekers Invade Nigeria’s “Monkey Village”’, September 3, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3193083.stm. (Accessed December 22, 2004).
- OPEC, 2005, OPEC Annual Statistical Bulletin 2004, Austria: OPEC.
- Raufu, A., 2004, ‘Desert March Threatens to Swallow Northern Nigeria’, Ecotopics - International News Service, Issue 14, March, http://www.ecotopics.com/ articles/desert-march.htm. (Accessed March 26, 2004).
- Rawls, J., 1971, A Theory of Justice, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Semenitari, I., 1998, ‘Siege of the Sluts’, Tell, Lagos, February 23.
- Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria (SPDC), 2001, People and theEnvironment: Annual Report.
- Shellenberger, M. and Nordhaus, T., 2004, ‘The Death of Environmentalism: GlobalWarming Politics in a Post-Environmental World’, http://www.grist.org/news/maindish/2005/01/13/doe-reprint/ (Accessed August 25, 2005).
- Snowden, R. J. and Ekweozor, I. K. E., 1987, ‘The Impact of a Minor Oil Spillage in the Estuarine Niger Delta’, Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 18, No. 11, 595-599.
- Sonibare, J. A. and Akeredolu, F. A., 2004, ‘A theoretical prediction of non-methane gaseous emissions from natural gas combustion’, Energy Policy, 32, 1653-1665.
- ThisDay, 2005, ‘Obasanjo Expresses Concern on Health, Education in North’, Lagos, August 8, http://www.thisdayonline.com/nview.php?id=24717. (Accessed August 8, 2005).
- ThisDay – The Sunday Newspaper, 1998, Lagos, January 31.
- Trade and Environment Database (TED), 1997, ‘Ogoni and Oil’, The TED Case Studies: An Online Journal, No. 149, 11 January, http://www.american.edu/ TED/OGONI.HTM, (Accessed May 11, 2004).
- Turcotte, H., 2002, ‘Slippery Security: National, International and Global Security Issues within Petroleum Production’, Alternatives: Turkish Journal of Interna- tional Relations, Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter, http://www.alternativesjournal.net/ volume1/number4/heather.htm (Accessed October 1, 2005).
- Turner, R. L. and Wu, D. P., 2002, ‘Environmental Justice and Environmental Racism: An Annotated Bibliography and General Overview, Focusing on U.S. Literature, 1996-2002’, August.
- Turner, T., 2001, ‘Oil Companies Lie, Deceive, Play Ethnic Card to Divide Host Communities’, National Interest , Vol. 221, July 31, 29-30, http://www.waado.org/Environment/OilCompanies/States/Rivers/OgbuduSpill/TerisaTurner_Interview.html (Accessed August 27, 2005).
- Turner, T., 1980, ‘Nigeria: Imperialism, Oil Technology and the Comprador State’, In Nore, P. and Turner, T., eds., Oil and Class Struggle, London: Zed Press, 199-223.
- Uchendu, V. C., 1979, ‘State, Land, and Society in Nigeria: A Critical Assessment of Land Use Decree (1978)’, Journal of African Studies, Summer, Vol. 6, No. 2, 62-74.
- UNEP, 2003, ‘Nigeria: Environmental Profile’, National Environmental Outlook, http://www.unep.net/profile/main_frame.cfm?tab=100&countrycode=NG (Accessed May 10, 2004).
- UNEP-WCMC, 2002, ‘Oil Industry’, UN Atlas of the Oceans, http://www.oceansatlas.com/servlet/CDSServlet?status=ND0xOTY2MS4yMDA3NSY3PWVuJjYxPXdlYi1zaXRlcyY2NT1pbmZv, (Accessed December 27, 2004).
- van Haren, L., 2000, ‘Environmental Justice Case Study: The U’wa Struggle Against Occidental Petroleum’, Z. Magazine , No. 30, June, http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Oil_watch/Colombias_Oil_War.html.(Accessed August 27, 2005).
- Watts, M. J., 1987, ‘Agriculture and Oil-based Accumulation: Stagnation or Transformation?’, in Watts, M. J., ed., State, Oil, and Agriculture in Nigeria, Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 58-84.WCED, 1987, Our Common Future, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Weber, T., 1988, Hugging the Trees: The Story of the Chipko Movement, New Delhi:Viking Press.
References
Abe, F. and Ayodele, S., 1986, ‘Oil Exploration, Drilling and the Environment’, inAdeniyi, E. O. and Bello-Imam, I. B., eds., Development and the Environment: Proceedings of a National Conference, Ibadan: NISER. 83-100.
Adediran, J. A., Taiwo, L. B., Sobulo, R. A., Ogunfowokan, A. O. and Fatoki, O. S., 2004, ‘Impact Of The Effluent Discharge From A Brewery
Plant On Three Communities In Ibadan Municipality, South Western Nigeria’, Global Journal Pure and Applied Science, 10 (1), 211-216.
Agbola, T. and Alabi, M., 2003, ‘Political Economy of Resources Development, Environmental Injustice and Selective Victimization: A Case Study of the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria’, In
Agyeman, J., Bullard, R. D. and Evans, B., eds., Just Sustainabilities: Development in an Unequal World, London: Earthscan, 270-288.
Agiobenebo, T. J. and Aribaolanari, N., 2001, ‘Rights, Resource Control and Polit- ico-Economic Equilibrium of the Market for National Union’, in Nigerian Economic Society (NES, ed.), Natural Resource Use, the Environment and Sustainable Development: Selected Papers Presented at the 2001 Annual Conference, Ibadan: Nigerian Economic Society, 413-456.
Akpan, W., 2006, ‘Between Responsibility and Rhetoric: Some Consequences of CSR Practice in Nigeria’s Oil Province’, Development Southern Africa, 23 (2), June. 223-240.
Akpan, W., 2005, ‘Putting Oil First? Some Ethnographic Aspects of Petroleum-related Land Use Controversies in Nigeria’, African Sociological Review, 9 (2). 134-152.
Apter, A., 2005, The Pan-African Nation: Oil and the Spectacle of Culture in Nigeria, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Austin, R. and Schill, M., 1994, ‘Black, Brown, Red, and Poisoned’, in Bullard, R. D., ed., Unequal Protection: Environmental Justice and Communities of Color, San Francisco: Sierra Club, 53-74.
Bakan, J., 2004, The Corporation: The Pathological Pursuit of Profit and Power, New York: Free Press.
Bassey, D., 2004, ‘IBB Distorted Abuja Master Plan’, Daily Independent Online, Lagos, Nigeria, March 26, http://odili.net/news/source/2004/mar/26/307.html. [Accessed March 30, 2004].
Bassey, N., 1997, Oilwatching in South America, Benin City: Environmental Rights Action.
Benka-Coker, M. O., Metseagharun, W. and Ekundayo, J. A., 1996, ‘Abundance of Sulphate-Reducing Bacteria in Niger Delta Oilfield Waters’, Bioresource Technology 54, 151-154.
Berry, S. S., 1987, ‘Oil and the Disappearing Peasantry: Accumulation, Differenti- ation, and Underdevelopment in Western Nigeria’, in Watts, M. J., ed., State, Oil, and Agriculture in Nigeria, Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 202-222.
Bullard, R. D., 1994, ‘Introduction’, in Bullard, R. D., ed., Unequal Protection: Environmental Justice and Communities of Color, San Francisco: Sierra Club, xv-viii.
Bullard, R. D., 2000, Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class, and Environmental Quality, Third Edition, Boulder, Colorado: Westview.
Cesarz, E., Morrison, J. S. and Cooke, J., 2003, ‘Alienation and Militancy in Nigeria’s Niger Delta’, Africa Notes, No. 16, May, 1-4.
Davies, W. J., 2001, Oil and Gas Investment in Nigeria, London: CWC Publishing. Dorzback, R., 2001, ‘Air Permits and Environmental Justice’, September 15,http://www.apcd.org/permit/t5tutorial/t5ej/tsld001.htm (Accessed June 10, 2006).
Ekoriko, M., 1997, ‘The Ethical Case Against Transnationals in the Third World: The Case of the Oil Industry in Nigeria’, Paper presented at the Cambridge Professional Environmental Seminar on Managing Sustainability Dilemmas in the Developing World, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. February 19.
Environment Canada, 2001, ‘Flaring in the Petroleum Industry’, http://www.ec.gc.ca/energ/oilgas/flaring/flaring_general2_e.htm(Accessed May 23, 2005).
Frontline World, 2003, ‘Nigeria - The Road North’, Alexandria, Virginia: PBS, http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/nigeria/facts.html. [Accessed July 15, 2005].
Frynas, J. G., 2000, Oil in Nigeria: Conflict and Litigation between Oil Companies and Village Communities, Hamburg: Lit Verlag Munster.
Gao, Z., 2003, ‘Environmental Regulation of the Oil and Gas Industries’, CEPMLP Internet Journal, Vol. 2, 11,
http://www.dundee.ac.uk/cepmlp/journal/html/article2-11.html. [Accessed February 10, 2004].
Gbadegesin, S., 2001, ‘Multinational Corporations, Developed Nations, and Environ- mental Racism: Toxic Waste, Exploration, and Eco-Catastrophe’, in Westra, L. and Lawson, B. E., eds., Faces of Environmental Racism: Confronting Issues of Global Justice, Second Edition, New York: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers.
Gutierrez, E., 1997, ‘Orinoco Natives Confront Big Oil, Venezuela’, Albion Monitor, Sebastopol, California, USA, April 15. Http://www.monitor.net/monitor/ 9704a/oilwarao.html (Accessed August 12,2005).
Hargrove, E., 2001, ‘Foreword’, in Westra, L. and Lawson, B. E., eds., Faces of Environmental Racism: Confronting Issues of Global Justice, Second Edition,New York: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Ix-xiii.
Human Rights Watch (HRW), 1999, The Price of Oil: Corporate Responsibility and Human Rights Violations in Nigeria’s Oil Producing Communities, New York: Human Rights Watch.
Human Rights Watch (HRW), 2002, The Niger Delta: No Democratic Dividend, Washington, DC: Human Rights Watch.
Igwe, B. U. N. and Edozien, L. N. O., 1986, ‘Nigeria’s Mineral Resources and Strat- egies for Forward and Backward Integration’, in Adeniyi, E. O. and Bello-Imam, I. B., eds., Development and the Environment: Proceedings of a National Conference, Ibadan: NISER, 121-165.
International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF), 2004, ‘Oil Tanker Spill Statistics: 2003’, ITOPF, http://www.itopf.com/datapack04.pdf. (Accessed December 27, 2004).
Ishisone, M., 2004, ‘Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta: The Potential Benefits of its Reduction on the Local Economy and Environment’,
http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~es196/projects/2004final/Ishone.pdf. (Accessed December 27,2004).
Mitee, L., 2002, ‘The Centrality of Self-Identity in Indigenous Peoples’ Struggles: The Struggle of the Ogoni People’, Paper Presented at the Indigenous Rights in the Commonwealth Project Africa Regional Expert Meeting, Cape Town, South Africa, October 16-18, http://www.cpsu.org.uk/downloads/Ledum%20Mitee.pdf. (Accessed May 22, 2005).
NEST, 1991, Nigeria’s Threatened Environment: A National Profile, Ibadan: Nigerian Environmental
Study/Action Team (NEST).
Obi, C., 2005, ‘Environmental Movements in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Political Ecology of Power and Conflict’, Civil Society and Development Programme Paper No. 15, January, UNRISD.
Obi, C., 1997, Structural Adjustment, Oil and Popular Struggles: The Deepening Crisis of State Legitimacy in Nigeria, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Oguejiofor, G. C., 2004, ‘Gas Flaring in Nigeria: Some Aspects for Accelerated Devel- opment of SasolChevron GTL Plant at Escravos’, Awka: Nnamdi Azikiwe University of Science and Technology, Department of Chemical Engineering.
Olukoya, S., 2003, ‘Job-seekers Invade Nigeria’s “Monkey Village”’, September 3, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3193083.stm. (Accessed December 22, 2004).
OPEC, 2005, OPEC Annual Statistical Bulletin 2004, Austria: OPEC.
Raufu, A., 2004, ‘Desert March Threatens to Swallow Northern Nigeria’, Ecotopics - International News Service, Issue 14, March, http://www.ecotopics.com/ articles/desert-march.htm. (Accessed March 26, 2004).
Rawls, J., 1971, A Theory of Justice, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Semenitari, I., 1998, ‘Siege of the Sluts’, Tell, Lagos, February 23.
Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria (SPDC), 2001, People and theEnvironment: Annual Report.
Shellenberger, M. and Nordhaus, T., 2004, ‘The Death of Environmentalism: GlobalWarming Politics in a Post-Environmental World’, http://www.grist.org/news/maindish/2005/01/13/doe-reprint/ (Accessed August 25, 2005).
Snowden, R. J. and Ekweozor, I. K. E., 1987, ‘The Impact of a Minor Oil Spillage in the Estuarine Niger Delta’, Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 18, No. 11, 595-599.
Sonibare, J. A. and Akeredolu, F. A., 2004, ‘A theoretical prediction of non-methane gaseous emissions from natural gas combustion’, Energy Policy, 32, 1653-1665.
ThisDay, 2005, ‘Obasanjo Expresses Concern on Health, Education in North’, Lagos, August 8, http://www.thisdayonline.com/nview.php?id=24717. (Accessed August 8, 2005).
ThisDay – The Sunday Newspaper, 1998, Lagos, January 31.
Trade and Environment Database (TED), 1997, ‘Ogoni and Oil’, The TED Case Studies: An Online Journal, No. 149, 11 January, http://www.american.edu/ TED/OGONI.HTM, (Accessed May 11, 2004).
Turcotte, H., 2002, ‘Slippery Security: National, International and Global Security Issues within Petroleum Production’, Alternatives: Turkish Journal of Interna- tional Relations, Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter, http://www.alternativesjournal.net/ volume1/number4/heather.htm (Accessed October 1, 2005).
Turner, R. L. and Wu, D. P., 2002, ‘Environmental Justice and Environmental Racism: An Annotated Bibliography and General Overview, Focusing on U.S. Literature, 1996-2002’, August.
Turner, T., 2001, ‘Oil Companies Lie, Deceive, Play Ethnic Card to Divide Host Communities’, National Interest , Vol. 221, July 31, 29-30, http://www.waado.org/Environment/OilCompanies/States/Rivers/OgbuduSpill/TerisaTurner_Interview.html (Accessed August 27, 2005).
Turner, T., 1980, ‘Nigeria: Imperialism, Oil Technology and the Comprador State’, In Nore, P. and Turner, T., eds., Oil and Class Struggle, London: Zed Press, 199-223.
Uchendu, V. C., 1979, ‘State, Land, and Society in Nigeria: A Critical Assessment of Land Use Decree (1978)’, Journal of African Studies, Summer, Vol. 6, No. 2, 62-74.
UNEP, 2003, ‘Nigeria: Environmental Profile’, National Environmental Outlook, http://www.unep.net/profile/main_frame.cfm?tab=100&countrycode=NG (Accessed May 10, 2004).
UNEP-WCMC, 2002, ‘Oil Industry’, UN Atlas of the Oceans, http://www.oceansatlas.com/servlet/CDSServlet?status=ND0xOTY2MS4yMDA3NSY3PWVuJjYxPXdlYi1zaXRlcyY2NT1pbmZv, (Accessed December 27, 2004).
van Haren, L., 2000, ‘Environmental Justice Case Study: The U’wa Struggle Against Occidental Petroleum’, Z. Magazine , No. 30, June, http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Oil_watch/Colombias_Oil_War.html.(Accessed August 27, 2005).
Watts, M. J., 1987, ‘Agriculture and Oil-based Accumulation: Stagnation or Transformation?’, in Watts, M. J., ed., State, Oil, and Agriculture in Nigeria, Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 58-84.WCED, 1987, Our Common Future, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Weber, T., 1988, Hugging the Trees: The Story of the Chipko Movement, New Delhi:Viking Press.