5 - The Growth of Private Universities in Kenya: Implications for Gender Equity in Higher Education.
Journal of Higher Education in Africa,
Vol. 5 No. 2-3 (2007): Journal of Higher Education in Africa
Abstract
The establishment of private universities in Kenya and Africa is relatively new. At independence (1960s) there were about seven universities on the continent. How- ever, by 2005 there were 85 private and 316 public universities in Africa (Kihara 2005). Kenya is leading in this expansion of private higher education in East Africa with 16 in 2006 compared to three in 1980. This article examines the implications of the growth of private universities on gender equity in higher edu- cation in Kenya. The article is based on two studies conducted in Kenya in 2002 and 2004 on the participation of women in university management. These two studies and a survey of literature on student enrolment in private and public uni- versities reveal that private universities are providing increased opportunities for women to access higher education both as students and staff. Increased opportuni- ties are provided through flexible admission and recruitment criteria, a conducive working environment and the appointment of more women into senior manage- ment positions.
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- Association of Commonwealth Universities, 2005, Commonwealth Universities Yearbook, 79th edition, London: Association of Commonwealth Universities Vol.1, pp.1060-1078.
- Boit, R. J. & Koskei, A. C., 2005, ‘Women’s Education: Gender Enrolment in University’, paper presented at the regional conference on the Role of African Universities in the achievement of Millennium Development Goals, Nairobi, 15-18 November.
- Brooks, A., 1995, ‘Researching the “Academy Community” Power and the Acad- emy’, PhD thesis, Institute of Education, University of London.
- Brown, F., 2001, ‘The Challenges Facing Private Universities in Kenya: The Case of USIU’, paper presented at the Ford Foundation, WERK Seminar, Nairobi Safari Club, Nairobi.
- Cairns, K., 1997, ‘Femininity and Women’s Silences in Response to Sexual Har- assment and Coercion’ in Thomas, A. & Kitzenger, C. (eds.). Sexual harass- ment: Contemporary Feminist Perspectives, London: Open University Press. Castleman, T.A., Allen, M., Bastalich, W. & Wright, P., 1995, Limited Access, Women’s Disadvantage in Higher Education Employment, Melbourne: Na-
- tional Tertiary Education.
- Chanana, K., 2004, ‘Gender and Disciplinary Choices: Women in Higher Educa- tion in India’, paper presented at the UNESCO Forum Colloquium on Re- search and Higher Education Policy, 1-3 December.
- Commission for Higher Education, 2007, Status of Kenyan Universities, Nairobi: Commission for Higher Education.
- Durrani, A., 2001, The Impact of Sexual Harassment on Women Managers in Two of the Higher Educational Institutions in Pakistan, M.A Dissertation, Institu- tion of Education, University of London.
- Eshiwani, G.S., 1987, Participation of Girls in Science and Technology in Kenya,Nairobi: Bureau of Educational Research.
- Everret, J., 1994, ‘Sex, Rank and Qualification at Australian Universities’, Aus- tralian Journal of Management, 19(2), pp. 15-30.
- Farley, L., 1978, Sexual Harassment of Women on the Job, New York: Warner Books.
- Flax, J., 1997, ‘Postmodernism and Gender Relations in Feminist Theory’ in Kemp,S. & Squires, J. (eds.) Feminisms, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Forum for African Women Educationists (FAWE), 2001, ‘Female Participation in African Universities: Issues of Concern and Possible Action’, paper presented at the 10th General Assembly of the AAU on 5-9 February at the Safari Park Hotel, Nairobi, Kenya.
- Government of Kenya, 1970, University of Nairobi Act: Nairobi, Government Printer.
- Government of Kenya, 2002, Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, Statistics, Nairobi: Government Printer.
- Gupton, S. L. & Slick, G. A., 1996, Highly Successful Women Administrators, The Inside Stories of how they got there, California: Corwin Press, INC and Sage Publications Company.
- Hagedorn, S., 2000, ‘Cruel Environment: Sexual Abuse and Harassment in the Academy’ in Glazer-Raymo, J., Townsend, B.K., & Ropers-Huilman, B. (eds.) Women in Higher Education: A Feminist Perspective. Boston: Pearson Cus- tom Publishing, 2ⁿᵈ Edition.
- Harvey, D., 1993, The Condition of Post Modernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change, Oxford: Blackwell.
- Hearn, J., 2001, ‘Academia, Management and Men: Making the Connections, Exploring the implications’ in Brooks, A. & McKinnon, A. (eds.) Gender and the Restructured University: Changing Management and Culture in Higher Education, Buckingham: Society for Research in Higher Education and Open University Press.
- Kamau, N.A., 2001, The Status of Women and Higher Education Management: A Case Study of One Private University in Kenya, M.A Dissertation Institute of Education, University of London.
- Ka ake, L., 1997, Gender Disparities among the Academic Staff in Kenyan Universities, Nairobi: Lyceum Educational Consultants Ltd.
- Kasomo, D., 2004, ‘The Role of Women in the Church in Africa’, seminar paper presented at a staff seminar Catholic University of Eastern Africa on 16 May. Keino, E. C., 2002, ‘Gender Centers at Universities in Kenya: Challenges and Opportunities’, paper presented at the 8ᵗʰ International Interdisciplinary Con- gress on Women: Women’s World 2002 at Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda, 21-27 July.
- Kihara, J., 2005, ‘New Departure in Provision of Higher Education’ in University Journal, a publication of the Daily Nation Newspaper July 28, p. 3, Nairobi: Nation Media Group.
- Kimani, E., 2005, ‘The Role of African Universities in the Achievement of Gen- der Equality and Empowerment of Women (MDG3)’, paper presented at the regional conference on the Role of African Universities in the Attainment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), Nairobi 15-18 November.
- Koech, D., 2000, Totally Integrated Quality Education and Training (TIQUET), report of the Commission of Enquiry into the Education System of Kenya, Nairobi: Government Printer.
- Lodiaga, M. J. & Mbevi, B. M., 1995, Status and Advancement of Women Profes- sionals in Agriculture, Environment Institutions and Public Universities in Kenya. Nairobi: AWLAE Program of Winrock International.
- Mackinnon, C., 1979, Sexual Harassment of Working Women, New Haven: Yale University Press.
- Mckinnon, A. & Brooks, A., 2001, ‘Introduction’, in Brooks, A. & McKinnon, A. (eds.) Gender and the
- Restructured University Changing Management and Culture in Higher Education, Buckingham: The Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press.
- Moletsane, R., 2004, ‘Gender Equality and Teacher Education in South Africa: A Review of the History’, paper presented at the Gender, Education and Devel- opment: Beyond Access Seminar 2, Pedagogic Strategies for Gender Equality and Quality Basic Education in Schools. A seminar organised by the Depart- ment for International Development (DFID), Institute of Education, University of London and Oxfam, 2 February, 2004, Nairobi, Kenya.
- Morley, L., 1999, Organising Feminisms. The Micropolitics of the Academy, Lon- don: Macmillan.
- Nguru, G. M., 1990, ‘The Role of Private Universities in Kenya’, in Achola, P.P.W., Gray, K. R. & Kerre, B.W. (eds.) Trends and the Future of University Educa- tion in Kenya, Nairobi: Masaki Publishers.
- Nyamu, F., 2004, ‘Experiences in Gender Mainstreaming at the University Level: The East African Experience focusing on Egerton University in Kenya and Makerere University in Uganda’, paper presented at the Gender Mainstreaming Workshop held at the University of Dar es Salaam, 19 April.
- Nz mo, M., 1995, Women in Top Management in Kenya, Nairobi: African Association for Public Administration and Management.Omale, J., 2002, ‘Tested to Their Limit: Sexual Harassment in Schools and Edu- cational Institutions in Kenya’, in Mirsky, J. & Radlet, M. (eds.) No Paradise Yet: The World’s Women Face the New Century, London: Zed Books.
- Onsongo, J. K., 2005, Outsiders Within: Women’s Participation in University Management in Kenya, PhD Thesis, University College London; University of London.
- Onsongo, J. K., 2002, ‘Factors affecting Women’s Participation in University Management in Kenya’, a study sponsored by the Organisation of Social Sci- ence Research in Eastern and Southern Africa (OSSREA).
- Onsongo, J. K., 2000, Publish or Perish: An Investigation into Academic Wom- en’s Access to Research and Publication as the Main Criteria for Promotion in Kenyan Universities, MA Thesis, Institute of Education, University of London.
- Ramsay, E., 1995, ‘The Politics of Privilege and Resistance’ in Payne, A.M. & Shoemark, L. (eds.)
- Women, Culture and Universities: A Chilly Climate, Syd- ney: University of Technology Women’s Forum.
- Sandler, B. R., 1992, Success and Survival Strategies for Women Faculty Mem- bers, Washington, D. C: Centre for Women’s Policy Studies, Association of American Colleges.
- Sandler, B. R. & Hall, R. M., 1986, The Campus Climate Revisited: Chilly for Women Faculty, Administrators and Graduate students. Project on the Status and Education of Women, Washington D. C: Centre for Women’s Policy Stud- ies, Association of American Colleges.
- Sandler, B. R., 1993, Women Faculty at Work in the Classroom, or Why it Still Hurts to be a Woman in Labour, Washington D. C.: Centre for Women’s Policy Studies, Association of American Colleges.
- Schuller, T., 1991, The Future of Higher Education. Buckingham: Society for Research in Higher Education (SRHE) and Open University Press.
- UNESCO, 1998a, Higher Education in the 21ˢᵗ Century, Vision and Action. Re- port of the World Conference on Education, UNESCO, Paris, 5-9 October 1998. Available at http://ifuw.org/cfhgred 98-is.htm.
- UNESCO, 1998b, Higher Education in Africa: Achievements, Challenges and Prospects, Dakar: UNESCO.
- Wesonga, D., Ngome, C., Ouma, D., & Wawire, V., 2003, ‘Private Higher Educa- tion in Kenya: Analysis of Trends and Issues in Four Selected Universities’, draft research report submitted to The FORD Foundation Office for Eastern Africa.
- World Bank, 2003, The Kenyan Strategic Country Gender Assessment, Washing- ton D. C: World Bank.
- Wyn, J., 1996, ‘Senior Women Academic in Education Working through Restruc- turing in Australian Universities’, paper presented at the British Education Research Association (BERA) Symposium held at Lancaster University, UK, 12-15 September.
References
Association of Commonwealth Universities, 2005, Commonwealth Universities Yearbook, 79th edition, London: Association of Commonwealth Universities Vol.1, pp.1060-1078.
Boit, R. J. & Koskei, A. C., 2005, ‘Women’s Education: Gender Enrolment in University’, paper presented at the regional conference on the Role of African Universities in the achievement of Millennium Development Goals, Nairobi, 15-18 November.
Brooks, A., 1995, ‘Researching the “Academy Community” Power and the Acad- emy’, PhD thesis, Institute of Education, University of London.
Brown, F., 2001, ‘The Challenges Facing Private Universities in Kenya: The Case of USIU’, paper presented at the Ford Foundation, WERK Seminar, Nairobi Safari Club, Nairobi.
Cairns, K., 1997, ‘Femininity and Women’s Silences in Response to Sexual Har- assment and Coercion’ in Thomas, A. & Kitzenger, C. (eds.). Sexual harass- ment: Contemporary Feminist Perspectives, London: Open University Press. Castleman, T.A., Allen, M., Bastalich, W. & Wright, P., 1995, Limited Access, Women’s Disadvantage in Higher Education Employment, Melbourne: Na-
tional Tertiary Education.
Chanana, K., 2004, ‘Gender and Disciplinary Choices: Women in Higher Educa- tion in India’, paper presented at the UNESCO Forum Colloquium on Re- search and Higher Education Policy, 1-3 December.
Commission for Higher Education, 2007, Status of Kenyan Universities, Nairobi: Commission for Higher Education.
Durrani, A., 2001, The Impact of Sexual Harassment on Women Managers in Two of the Higher Educational Institutions in Pakistan, M.A Dissertation, Institu- tion of Education, University of London.
Eshiwani, G.S., 1987, Participation of Girls in Science and Technology in Kenya,Nairobi: Bureau of Educational Research.
Everret, J., 1994, ‘Sex, Rank and Qualification at Australian Universities’, Aus- tralian Journal of Management, 19(2), pp. 15-30.
Farley, L., 1978, Sexual Harassment of Women on the Job, New York: Warner Books.
Flax, J., 1997, ‘Postmodernism and Gender Relations in Feminist Theory’ in Kemp,S. & Squires, J. (eds.) Feminisms, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Forum for African Women Educationists (FAWE), 2001, ‘Female Participation in African Universities: Issues of Concern and Possible Action’, paper presented at the 10th General Assembly of the AAU on 5-9 February at the Safari Park Hotel, Nairobi, Kenya.
Government of Kenya, 1970, University of Nairobi Act: Nairobi, Government Printer.
Government of Kenya, 2002, Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, Statistics, Nairobi: Government Printer.
Gupton, S. L. & Slick, G. A., 1996, Highly Successful Women Administrators, The Inside Stories of how they got there, California: Corwin Press, INC and Sage Publications Company.
Hagedorn, S., 2000, ‘Cruel Environment: Sexual Abuse and Harassment in the Academy’ in Glazer-Raymo, J., Townsend, B.K., & Ropers-Huilman, B. (eds.) Women in Higher Education: A Feminist Perspective. Boston: Pearson Cus- tom Publishing, 2ⁿᵈ Edition.
Harvey, D., 1993, The Condition of Post Modernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change, Oxford: Blackwell.
Hearn, J., 2001, ‘Academia, Management and Men: Making the Connections, Exploring the implications’ in Brooks, A. & McKinnon, A. (eds.) Gender and the Restructured University: Changing Management and Culture in Higher Education, Buckingham: Society for Research in Higher Education and Open University Press.
Kamau, N.A., 2001, The Status of Women and Higher Education Management: A Case Study of One Private University in Kenya, M.A Dissertation Institute of Education, University of London.
Ka ake, L., 1997, Gender Disparities among the Academic Staff in Kenyan Universities, Nairobi: Lyceum Educational Consultants Ltd.
Kasomo, D., 2004, ‘The Role of Women in the Church in Africa’, seminar paper presented at a staff seminar Catholic University of Eastern Africa on 16 May. Keino, E. C., 2002, ‘Gender Centers at Universities in Kenya: Challenges and Opportunities’, paper presented at the 8ᵗʰ International Interdisciplinary Con- gress on Women: Women’s World 2002 at Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda, 21-27 July.
Kihara, J., 2005, ‘New Departure in Provision of Higher Education’ in University Journal, a publication of the Daily Nation Newspaper July 28, p. 3, Nairobi: Nation Media Group.
Kimani, E., 2005, ‘The Role of African Universities in the Achievement of Gen- der Equality and Empowerment of Women (MDG3)’, paper presented at the regional conference on the Role of African Universities in the Attainment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), Nairobi 15-18 November.
Koech, D., 2000, Totally Integrated Quality Education and Training (TIQUET), report of the Commission of Enquiry into the Education System of Kenya, Nairobi: Government Printer.
Lodiaga, M. J. & Mbevi, B. M., 1995, Status and Advancement of Women Profes- sionals in Agriculture, Environment Institutions and Public Universities in Kenya. Nairobi: AWLAE Program of Winrock International.
Mackinnon, C., 1979, Sexual Harassment of Working Women, New Haven: Yale University Press.
Mckinnon, A. & Brooks, A., 2001, ‘Introduction’, in Brooks, A. & McKinnon, A. (eds.) Gender and the
Restructured University Changing Management and Culture in Higher Education, Buckingham: The Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press.
Moletsane, R., 2004, ‘Gender Equality and Teacher Education in South Africa: A Review of the History’, paper presented at the Gender, Education and Devel- opment: Beyond Access Seminar 2, Pedagogic Strategies for Gender Equality and Quality Basic Education in Schools. A seminar organised by the Depart- ment for International Development (DFID), Institute of Education, University of London and Oxfam, 2 February, 2004, Nairobi, Kenya.
Morley, L., 1999, Organising Feminisms. The Micropolitics of the Academy, Lon- don: Macmillan.
Nguru, G. M., 1990, ‘The Role of Private Universities in Kenya’, in Achola, P.P.W., Gray, K. R. & Kerre, B.W. (eds.) Trends and the Future of University Educa- tion in Kenya, Nairobi: Masaki Publishers.
Nyamu, F., 2004, ‘Experiences in Gender Mainstreaming at the University Level: The East African Experience focusing on Egerton University in Kenya and Makerere University in Uganda’, paper presented at the Gender Mainstreaming Workshop held at the University of Dar es Salaam, 19 April.
Nz mo, M., 1995, Women in Top Management in Kenya, Nairobi: African Association for Public Administration and Management.Omale, J., 2002, ‘Tested to Their Limit: Sexual Harassment in Schools and Edu- cational Institutions in Kenya’, in Mirsky, J. & Radlet, M. (eds.) No Paradise Yet: The World’s Women Face the New Century, London: Zed Books.
Onsongo, J. K., 2005, Outsiders Within: Women’s Participation in University Management in Kenya, PhD Thesis, University College London; University of London.
Onsongo, J. K., 2002, ‘Factors affecting Women’s Participation in University Management in Kenya’, a study sponsored by the Organisation of Social Sci- ence Research in Eastern and Southern Africa (OSSREA).
Onsongo, J. K., 2000, Publish or Perish: An Investigation into Academic Wom- en’s Access to Research and Publication as the Main Criteria for Promotion in Kenyan Universities, MA Thesis, Institute of Education, University of London.
Ramsay, E., 1995, ‘The Politics of Privilege and Resistance’ in Payne, A.M. & Shoemark, L. (eds.)
Women, Culture and Universities: A Chilly Climate, Syd- ney: University of Technology Women’s Forum.
Sandler, B. R., 1992, Success and Survival Strategies for Women Faculty Mem- bers, Washington, D. C: Centre for Women’s Policy Studies, Association of American Colleges.
Sandler, B. R. & Hall, R. M., 1986, The Campus Climate Revisited: Chilly for Women Faculty, Administrators and Graduate students. Project on the Status and Education of Women, Washington D. C: Centre for Women’s Policy Stud- ies, Association of American Colleges.
Sandler, B. R., 1993, Women Faculty at Work in the Classroom, or Why it Still Hurts to be a Woman in Labour, Washington D. C.: Centre for Women’s Policy Studies, Association of American Colleges.
Schuller, T., 1991, The Future of Higher Education. Buckingham: Society for Research in Higher Education (SRHE) and Open University Press.
UNESCO, 1998a, Higher Education in the 21ˢᵗ Century, Vision and Action. Re- port of the World Conference on Education, UNESCO, Paris, 5-9 October 1998. Available at http://ifuw.org/cfhgred 98-is.htm.
UNESCO, 1998b, Higher Education in Africa: Achievements, Challenges and Prospects, Dakar: UNESCO.
Wesonga, D., Ngome, C., Ouma, D., & Wawire, V., 2003, ‘Private Higher Educa- tion in Kenya: Analysis of Trends and Issues in Four Selected Universities’, draft research report submitted to The FORD Foundation Office for Eastern Africa.
World Bank, 2003, The Kenyan Strategic Country Gender Assessment, Washing- ton D. C: World Bank.
Wyn, J., 1996, ‘Senior Women Academic in Education Working through Restruc- turing in Australian Universities’, paper presented at the British Education Research Association (BERA) Symposium held at Lancaster University, UK, 12-15 September.