3 - Feminist Scholarship, Femocracy and the Glass Ceiling in Zimbabwean Politics
Corresponding Author(s) : Chadambuka
Journal of Higher Education in Africa,
Vol. 20 No. 1 (2022): Journal of Higher Education in Africa
Abstract
This article analyses the contributions of feminist scholarship in enhancing women’s political participation in Zimbabwe. After years of critical and feminist theory and quota systems it is noted that women’s participation in politics has achieved insignificant contributions towards the attainment of gender equality. The article uses the glass ceiling concept to argue that the presidium marks women’s glass ceiling in Zimbabwean politics. Zimbabwe is yet to acknowledge and accept that women are presidential material. It is further argued that female politicians have embraced their ascendancy to the country’s higher political offices as an end in itself and not as a means to uplift women’s lives. Using Crenshaw’s concept of intersectionality, the article also brings to light how female politicians seem to be engendering agendas that have nothing to do with women as they are used as objects to further patriarchal power struggles. It is thus recommended that there is a need to create synergy between feminists and female politicians in order to earnestly represent the needs of women once they get into political office. It is argued, however, that this transformation should begin with educational institutions which are still male-dominated. The idea is that universities and political offices need to prioritise gender equality so that Africa’s social transformation that uplifts the lives of women may be achieved.
Keywords
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)BibTeX
- Baxter, J., and Wright, E.O., 2000, ‘The glass ceiling hypothesis: a comparative study of the United States, Sweden, and Australia’, Gender and Society 14 (2): 275–94.
- BBC 2004, ‘Mugabe moves against party rivals’, 1 December.
- Beach, D.N., 1998, ‘An innocent woman, unjustly accused? Charwe, medium of the Nehanda Mhondoro Spirit, and the 1896–97 Central Shona Rising in Zim- babwe’, History in Africa 25: 27–54.
- Benschop, Y., and Brouns, M., 2004, ‘The trouble with the glass ceiling: critical reflections on a famous concept’, paper for the 4th International Critical Management Studies Conference.
- Chabaya et al., 2009, ‘The persistence of gender inequality in Zimbabwe: factors that impede the advancement of women into leadership positions in primary schools’, South African Journal of Education 29: 235–51.
- Chadya, J.M., 2003, ‘Mother politics: anti-colonial nationalism and the woman question in Africa’, Journal of Women’s History 15 (3): 153–7.
- Chauraya, E., 2011, ‘The implementation of gender policy programmes in selected state universities in Zimbabwe’, doctoral thesis, University of South Africa.
- Chibamu, A., 2018, ‘Activists in MDC-T regalia charge Khupe: chant hure! hure! hure!’, New Zimbabwe, 23 May.
- Crenshaw, K., 1989, ‘Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: a black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist policies’, University of Chicago Legal Forum 1: 139–67.
- Davidson, B., 1987, The Lost Cities of Africa, New York, NY: Little, Brown and Company.
- Dzirutwe, M., 2014, ‘Zimbabwe’s Mugabe fires deputy, seven ministers’, Reuters, 9 December.
- European Union Election Observer Mission, 2018, Zimbabwe Harmonised Elections 2018, Preliminary Statement.
- Folke, O., and Rickne, J., 2014, The Glass Ceiling in Politics: Formalization and Empirical Tests, IFN Working Paper No. 1034, Research Institute of Industrial Economics.
- Freedman, J., 2000, Concepts in the Social Sciences: Feminism, Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
- Gaidzanwa, R.B., 2007, ‘Alienation, gender and institutional culture at the University of Zimbabwe’, Feminist Africa 8: 60–82."
- Galligan, Y., 2007, ‘Gender and political representation: current empirical perspec- tives’, International Political Science Review 28: 557–70.
- Hungwe, C., 2006, ‘Putting them in their place: “respectable” and “unrespectable” women in Zimbabwean gender struggles’, Feminist Africa 6: 33–47. Ibrahim, n.d., ‘The First Lady syndrome and the marginalisation of women from power: opportunities or compromises for gender equality’.
- Kamhungira, T., 2018, ‘Deep fear silences ZANU PF women’, The Daily News, 2 September.
- Kariwo, M.K., 2007, ‘Widening access in higher education in Zimbabwe’, Higher Education Policy 2: 45–59.
- Kenway, J., et al., 1994, ‘Making “hope practical” rather than “despair convincing”: feminist post-structuralism, gender reform and educational change’, British Journal of Sociology of Education 15 (2): 187–210.
- Mama, A., 1995, ‘Feminism or femocracy? State feminism and democratisation in Nigeria’, Africa Development / Afrique et Développement 20 (1): 37–58.
- Mama, A., 2001, ‘Challenging subjects: gender and power in African contexts’, African Sociological Review 5 (2): 63–73.
- Mama, A., 2015, ‘Beyond the frontiers: feminist activism in the “global” academy’, Caribbean Review of Gender Studies 9: 35–48.
- Maphosa, M., et al., 2015, ‘Participation of women in Zimbabwean politics and the mirage of gender equity’, Ubuntu: Journal of Conflict and Social Transformation 4 (2): 127–59.
- Morrison, A., et al., 1987, Breaking the Glass Ceiling, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
- Muyengwa-Mapuva, L., 2015, ‘The feminist discourse and the case of Women of Zimbabwe Arise (WOZA)’, Journal of Culture, Society and Development 9: 51–60.
- News 24, 2016, ‘I’m already president, Grace Mugabe claims – report’, 22 November.
- News 24, 2017, ‘“You were right about Grace Mugabe bedroom coup remarks”, war vets say as they apologise to former boss’, 27 October.
- Offen, K., 1988, ‘Defining feminism: a comparative historical approach’, Signs 14 (1): 119–57.
- Okeke-Ihejirika, P.E., and Franceschet, S., 2002, ‘Democratization and state feminism: gender politics in Africa and Latin America’, Development and Change 33 (3): 439–66.
- Okeke, P., 1998, ‘The First Lady syndrome: the (en)gendering of bureaucratic corruption in Nigeria’, CODESRIA Bulletin 3 (4): 16–19.
- Plaut, M., 2017, ‘Zimbabwe’s coup pits Grace Mugabe against the old guard’, New Statesman, 15 November.
- RAU, 2017, ‘Women’s wings in Zimbabwe in 2017: Are they necessary?’, Harare: Research and Advocacy Unit, December.
- Ritzer, G., 2015, Introduction to Sociology, London. Routledge.
- Rutherford, B., 2001, Working on the Margins. Black Workers, White Farmers in Postcolonial Zimbabwe, Harare: Weaver Press.
- Rutherford, B., 2013, ‘Electoral politics and a farm workers’ struggle in Zimbabwe (1999–2000)’, Journal of Southern African Studies 39 (4): 845–62.
- Shizha, E., and Kariwo, M.T., 2011, Education and Development in Zimbabwe: A Social, Political and Economic Analysis, Rotterdam, Sense Publishers.
- Siveregi, J., 2006, ‘A critical analysis of the pursuit of the feminist agenda through the experiences of women’s legal rights organizations in Zimbabwe’, Master’s in Law dissertation thesis submitted to the University of Zimbabwe.
- The Herald, 2018, ‘Women MPs hit back at Mliswa’, The Herald, 24 July, https://www.herald.co.zw/women-mps-hit-back-at-mliswa/.
- Tsikata, D., 1988, ‘The First Lady syndrome’, Public Agenda.
- United States Department of State, 2015, Zimbabwe Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 2015, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labour.
- Waylen, G., 2008, ‘Enhancing the substantive representation of women: lessons from transitions to democracy’, Parliamentary Affairs 61 (3): 518–34.
- Zaba, F., 2017, ‘Grace Mugabe doing women a disservice’, Zimbabwe Independent, 27 March.
- Zamfirache, I., 2010, ‘Women and politics – the glass ceiling’, Journal of Comparative Research in Anthropology and Sociology 1 (1): 175–85.
References
Baxter, J., and Wright, E.O., 2000, ‘The glass ceiling hypothesis: a comparative study of the United States, Sweden, and Australia’, Gender and Society 14 (2): 275–94.
BBC 2004, ‘Mugabe moves against party rivals’, 1 December.
Beach, D.N., 1998, ‘An innocent woman, unjustly accused? Charwe, medium of the Nehanda Mhondoro Spirit, and the 1896–97 Central Shona Rising in Zim- babwe’, History in Africa 25: 27–54.
Benschop, Y., and Brouns, M., 2004, ‘The trouble with the glass ceiling: critical reflections on a famous concept’, paper for the 4th International Critical Management Studies Conference.
Chabaya et al., 2009, ‘The persistence of gender inequality in Zimbabwe: factors that impede the advancement of women into leadership positions in primary schools’, South African Journal of Education 29: 235–51.
Chadya, J.M., 2003, ‘Mother politics: anti-colonial nationalism and the woman question in Africa’, Journal of Women’s History 15 (3): 153–7.
Chauraya, E., 2011, ‘The implementation of gender policy programmes in selected state universities in Zimbabwe’, doctoral thesis, University of South Africa.
Chibamu, A., 2018, ‘Activists in MDC-T regalia charge Khupe: chant hure! hure! hure!’, New Zimbabwe, 23 May.
Crenshaw, K., 1989, ‘Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: a black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist policies’, University of Chicago Legal Forum 1: 139–67.
Davidson, B., 1987, The Lost Cities of Africa, New York, NY: Little, Brown and Company.
Dzirutwe, M., 2014, ‘Zimbabwe’s Mugabe fires deputy, seven ministers’, Reuters, 9 December.
European Union Election Observer Mission, 2018, Zimbabwe Harmonised Elections 2018, Preliminary Statement.
Folke, O., and Rickne, J., 2014, The Glass Ceiling in Politics: Formalization and Empirical Tests, IFN Working Paper No. 1034, Research Institute of Industrial Economics.
Freedman, J., 2000, Concepts in the Social Sciences: Feminism, Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Gaidzanwa, R.B., 2007, ‘Alienation, gender and institutional culture at the University of Zimbabwe’, Feminist Africa 8: 60–82."
Galligan, Y., 2007, ‘Gender and political representation: current empirical perspec- tives’, International Political Science Review 28: 557–70.
Hungwe, C., 2006, ‘Putting them in their place: “respectable” and “unrespectable” women in Zimbabwean gender struggles’, Feminist Africa 6: 33–47. Ibrahim, n.d., ‘The First Lady syndrome and the marginalisation of women from power: opportunities or compromises for gender equality’.
Kamhungira, T., 2018, ‘Deep fear silences ZANU PF women’, The Daily News, 2 September.
Kariwo, M.K., 2007, ‘Widening access in higher education in Zimbabwe’, Higher Education Policy 2: 45–59.
Kenway, J., et al., 1994, ‘Making “hope practical” rather than “despair convincing”: feminist post-structuralism, gender reform and educational change’, British Journal of Sociology of Education 15 (2): 187–210.
Mama, A., 1995, ‘Feminism or femocracy? State feminism and democratisation in Nigeria’, Africa Development / Afrique et Développement 20 (1): 37–58.
Mama, A., 2001, ‘Challenging subjects: gender and power in African contexts’, African Sociological Review 5 (2): 63–73.
Mama, A., 2015, ‘Beyond the frontiers: feminist activism in the “global” academy’, Caribbean Review of Gender Studies 9: 35–48.
Maphosa, M., et al., 2015, ‘Participation of women in Zimbabwean politics and the mirage of gender equity’, Ubuntu: Journal of Conflict and Social Transformation 4 (2): 127–59.
Morrison, A., et al., 1987, Breaking the Glass Ceiling, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Muyengwa-Mapuva, L., 2015, ‘The feminist discourse and the case of Women of Zimbabwe Arise (WOZA)’, Journal of Culture, Society and Development 9: 51–60.
News 24, 2016, ‘I’m already president, Grace Mugabe claims – report’, 22 November.
News 24, 2017, ‘“You were right about Grace Mugabe bedroom coup remarks”, war vets say as they apologise to former boss’, 27 October.
Offen, K., 1988, ‘Defining feminism: a comparative historical approach’, Signs 14 (1): 119–57.
Okeke-Ihejirika, P.E., and Franceschet, S., 2002, ‘Democratization and state feminism: gender politics in Africa and Latin America’, Development and Change 33 (3): 439–66.
Okeke, P., 1998, ‘The First Lady syndrome: the (en)gendering of bureaucratic corruption in Nigeria’, CODESRIA Bulletin 3 (4): 16–19.
Plaut, M., 2017, ‘Zimbabwe’s coup pits Grace Mugabe against the old guard’, New Statesman, 15 November.
RAU, 2017, ‘Women’s wings in Zimbabwe in 2017: Are they necessary?’, Harare: Research and Advocacy Unit, December.
Ritzer, G., 2015, Introduction to Sociology, London. Routledge.
Rutherford, B., 2001, Working on the Margins. Black Workers, White Farmers in Postcolonial Zimbabwe, Harare: Weaver Press.
Rutherford, B., 2013, ‘Electoral politics and a farm workers’ struggle in Zimbabwe (1999–2000)’, Journal of Southern African Studies 39 (4): 845–62.
Shizha, E., and Kariwo, M.T., 2011, Education and Development in Zimbabwe: A Social, Political and Economic Analysis, Rotterdam, Sense Publishers.
Siveregi, J., 2006, ‘A critical analysis of the pursuit of the feminist agenda through the experiences of women’s legal rights organizations in Zimbabwe’, Master’s in Law dissertation thesis submitted to the University of Zimbabwe.
The Herald, 2018, ‘Women MPs hit back at Mliswa’, The Herald, 24 July, https://www.herald.co.zw/women-mps-hit-back-at-mliswa/.
Tsikata, D., 1988, ‘The First Lady syndrome’, Public Agenda.
United States Department of State, 2015, Zimbabwe Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 2015, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labour.
Waylen, G., 2008, ‘Enhancing the substantive representation of women: lessons from transitions to democracy’, Parliamentary Affairs 61 (3): 518–34.
Zaba, F., 2017, ‘Grace Mugabe doing women a disservice’, Zimbabwe Independent, 27 March.
Zamfirache, I., 2010, ‘Women and politics – the glass ceiling’, Journal of Comparative Research in Anthropology and Sociology 1 (1): 175–85.