5 - Exploring Intersections: The Language Question Again!
Corresponding Author(s) : Ato Kwamena Onoma
Africa Development,
Vol. 33 No. 1 (2008): Africa Development: Special Issue The Politics of Knowledge Production in Africa - Nurturing the Fourth Generation
Abstract
Many African countries have undertaken transitions to democratic rule since the early 1990s. While giving many people the rare opportunity to vote in com- petitive and pluralistic elections, there have been limits to the empowering ef- fects of these transitions for many. The paper argues that the continued use of English, French and Portuguese in state and academic activities has minimised the empowering effects of these democratic transitions. The use of such lan- guages contributes critically to limiting the ability of many Africans lacking fluency in them to participate in two important moments that define the possi- bilities and limits of democratic decision-making. First, it limits their ability to participate in discourses that determine what aspects of social realities should be subjected to democratic decision-making and what aspects should be insu- lated from popular participation. Second, it minimises the ability of many to contribute to discourses that define the appropriate ways of contesting what- ever elements of political economies are included in the democratic space. Inter- national politico-economic institutions and external epistemic communities have had excessive influence on these two moments of decision-making. The paper argues that generations of African scholars have collaborated in this process of disempowerment by refusing to take a concerted and determined stance against the dominant role of French, English and Portuguese on the continent. Because of this role, we should regard African scholarship as a force seeking to create a space for itself within a closed discursive and practical space rather than a radical force seeking to eliminate closure of discursive and practical spaces generally.
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- Achebe, C., 1975, Morning Yet on Creation Day: Essays, London: Heinemann Educational.
- Achebe, C., 1988, Hopes and Impediments: Selected Essays, 1965-1987, London: Heinemann.
- Ake, C., 1979, Social Science as Imperialism, Ibadan: Ibadan University Press. Ake, C., 1992, The Feasibility of Democracy in Africa, Ibadan: Credu.
- Ake, C., 1994, Democratization of Disempowerment in Africa, Lagos: Malthouse Press.
- Amin, S., 1977, Imperialism and Unequal Development, New York: Monthly Review Press.
- Armah, A. K., 1979, The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born; A Novel, New York: Collier Books.
- Bayart, J-.F., 1993, The State in Africa: The Politics of the Belly, London and New York: Longman.
- Bohannan, P. and Curtin, P. D., 1988, Africa and Africans. Prospect Heights, Ill., Waveland Press.
- Davidson, B., 1984, Africa in History: Themes and Outlines, London: Paladin.
- Diouf, M., 1994, ‘The Intelligentsia in the Democratic Transition’, in M. Mamdani & M. Diouf, eds., Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
- Ellis, S., 1999, The Mask of Anarchy: The Destruction of Liberia and the Religious Dimension of an African Civil War, London: Hurst.
- Gikandi, S., 2000, ‘Travelling Theory: Ngugi’s Return to English’, Research in African Literatures, Vol. 31, no. 2.
- Gilroy, P., 2000, Against Race: Imagining Political Culture Beyond the Color Line, Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
- Hagan, G., 1994, ‘Academic Freedom and National Responsibility in an African State: Ghana’, in M. Mamdani & M. Diouf, eds., Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
- Herbst, J. and Olukoshi, A., 1994, ‘Nigeria: Economic and Political Reforms at Cross Purposes’, in Stephan Haggard and Steven B. Webb, eds., Voting for Reform: Democracy, Political Liberalization, and Economic Adjustment, London: Oxford University Press.
- Hountondji, P. J., 2002, The Struggle for Meaning: Reflections on Philosophy, Culture, and Democracy in Africa, Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Center for International Studies.
- Human Rights Watch, 1991, Academic Freedom and Human Rights Abuses in Africa, New York, NY: Human Rights Watch.
- Ihonvbere, J., 1996, ‘Where is the Third Wave? A Critical Evaluation of Africa’s Non-transition to Democracy’, Africa Today, Vol. 43, no. 4.
- Imam, A. and Mama, A., 1994, ‘The Role of Africa Academics in Limiting and Expanding Academic Freedom’, in M. Mamdani & M. Diouf, eds., Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
- Irele, A., 1992, ‘In Praise of Alienation’, in V. Y. Mudimbe, ed., The Surreptitious Speech: Présence Africaine and the Politics of Otherness, 1947-1987, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- Ki-Zerbo, J., 1981, ‘General Introduction,’ in J. Ki-Zerbo, ed., Unesco General History of Africa: Methodology and Africa’s Prehistory, Paris: Unesco.
- Ki-Zerbo, J., 1995, ‘The Need for Creative Organization Approaches’, in M. Mamdani & M. Diouf, eds., Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
- Mafeje, A., 1994, ‘African Intellectuals: An Inquiry into their Genesis and Social Options’, in M. Mamdani & M. Diouf, eds., Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
- Mamdani, M., 1996, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
- Mamdani, M. and Diouf, M., eds., 1994, Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
- Mamdani, M., 1994, ‘The Intelligentsia, the State and Social Movements in Africa, in M. Mamdani & M. Diouf, eds., Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
- Menang, T., 2001, ‘Which Language(s) of African Literature: A Reappraisal’, Trans. Internet-Zeitschrift fur Kulturwissenschaften, 11.
- Mkandawire, T., 1997, ‘The Social Sciences in Africa: Breaking Local Barriers and Negotiating International Presence’, African Studies Review, Vol. 40, no. 2.
- Mkandawire, T. and Solubo, C., 2003, ‘Introduction: Towards the Broadening of Development Policy Dialogue for Africa’, in T. Mkandawire and C. Solubo, ed., African Voices on Structural Adjustment, Trenton, NJ.: Africa World Press.
- Mphalele, E., 1963, ‘Polemics: The Dead End of African Literature’, Transition, 11.
- Naim, M., 1985, Latin America’s Journey to the Market: From Macroeconomic Shocks to Institutional Therapy, San Francisco, California: International Center for Economic Growth Publication.
- Nkrumah, K., 1970, Africa Must Unite, New York: International Publishers.
- Nkrumah, K., 1964, ‘Address Delivered to Mark the Opening of the First International’, in L. Brown and M. Crowder, eds., The Proceedings of the First International Congress of Africanists, Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.
- Onimode, B., 1989, The IMF, the World Bank, and the African debt, New Jersey: Zed Books.
- Olukoshi, A. and Nyamnjoh, F. B., 2003, ‘Editorial’, CODESRIA Bulletin, no. 1.
- Prah, K. K., 1995, African Languages for the Mass Education of Africans, Bonn: German Foundation for International Development Education Science and Documentation Centre.
- Rathbone, R., 2000, Nkrumah & the Chiefs: The Politics of Chieftaincy in Ghana, 1951-60, Athens: Ohio University Press.
- Said, E., 2003, ‘The Other America’, Al-Ahram Weekly, 63, March 20-26.
- Sall, E., 2001, ‘The Money Game—Too Poor to Be Free,’ Unesco Courier, 54, 11.
- Shivji, I. G., 1993, Intellectuals at the Hill: Essays and Talks, 1969-1993, Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press.
- Soyinka, W., 1963, ‘Polemics: The Dead End of African Literature’, Transition, 11.
- Wali, O., 1963, ‘The Dead End of African Literature’, Transition, 10.
- wa Thiong’o, N., 1982, Devil on the Cross, London: Heinemann.
- wa Thiong’o, N., 1986, Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature, Portsmouth, N.H.: James Currey.
- wa Thiong’o, N., 1998, Penpoints, Gunpoints, and Dreams: Toward a Critical Theory of the Arts and the State in Africa, New York: Clarendon Press.
- World Bank, 1997, World Development Report 1997: The State in a Changing World, New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press.
- Yankah, K., 1996, ‘Displaced Academies and the Quest for a New World Academic Order’, Africa Today, Vol. 42, no. 3.
- Zeleza, P. T., 1997, Manufacturing African Studies and Crises, Dakar: CODESRIA."
References
Achebe, C., 1975, Morning Yet on Creation Day: Essays, London: Heinemann Educational.
Achebe, C., 1988, Hopes and Impediments: Selected Essays, 1965-1987, London: Heinemann.
Ake, C., 1979, Social Science as Imperialism, Ibadan: Ibadan University Press. Ake, C., 1992, The Feasibility of Democracy in Africa, Ibadan: Credu.
Ake, C., 1994, Democratization of Disempowerment in Africa, Lagos: Malthouse Press.
Amin, S., 1977, Imperialism and Unequal Development, New York: Monthly Review Press.
Armah, A. K., 1979, The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born; A Novel, New York: Collier Books.
Bayart, J-.F., 1993, The State in Africa: The Politics of the Belly, London and New York: Longman.
Bohannan, P. and Curtin, P. D., 1988, Africa and Africans. Prospect Heights, Ill., Waveland Press.
Davidson, B., 1984, Africa in History: Themes and Outlines, London: Paladin.
Diouf, M., 1994, ‘The Intelligentsia in the Democratic Transition’, in M. Mamdani & M. Diouf, eds., Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Ellis, S., 1999, The Mask of Anarchy: The Destruction of Liberia and the Religious Dimension of an African Civil War, London: Hurst.
Gikandi, S., 2000, ‘Travelling Theory: Ngugi’s Return to English’, Research in African Literatures, Vol. 31, no. 2.
Gilroy, P., 2000, Against Race: Imagining Political Culture Beyond the Color Line, Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Hagan, G., 1994, ‘Academic Freedom and National Responsibility in an African State: Ghana’, in M. Mamdani & M. Diouf, eds., Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Herbst, J. and Olukoshi, A., 1994, ‘Nigeria: Economic and Political Reforms at Cross Purposes’, in Stephan Haggard and Steven B. Webb, eds., Voting for Reform: Democracy, Political Liberalization, and Economic Adjustment, London: Oxford University Press.
Hountondji, P. J., 2002, The Struggle for Meaning: Reflections on Philosophy, Culture, and Democracy in Africa, Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Center for International Studies.
Human Rights Watch, 1991, Academic Freedom and Human Rights Abuses in Africa, New York, NY: Human Rights Watch.
Ihonvbere, J., 1996, ‘Where is the Third Wave? A Critical Evaluation of Africa’s Non-transition to Democracy’, Africa Today, Vol. 43, no. 4.
Imam, A. and Mama, A., 1994, ‘The Role of Africa Academics in Limiting and Expanding Academic Freedom’, in M. Mamdani & M. Diouf, eds., Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Irele, A., 1992, ‘In Praise of Alienation’, in V. Y. Mudimbe, ed., The Surreptitious Speech: Présence Africaine and the Politics of Otherness, 1947-1987, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Ki-Zerbo, J., 1981, ‘General Introduction,’ in J. Ki-Zerbo, ed., Unesco General History of Africa: Methodology and Africa’s Prehistory, Paris: Unesco.
Ki-Zerbo, J., 1995, ‘The Need for Creative Organization Approaches’, in M. Mamdani & M. Diouf, eds., Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Mafeje, A., 1994, ‘African Intellectuals: An Inquiry into their Genesis and Social Options’, in M. Mamdani & M. Diouf, eds., Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Mamdani, M., 1996, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Mamdani, M. and Diouf, M., eds., 1994, Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Mamdani, M., 1994, ‘The Intelligentsia, the State and Social Movements in Africa, in M. Mamdani & M. Diouf, eds., Academic Freedom in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Menang, T., 2001, ‘Which Language(s) of African Literature: A Reappraisal’, Trans. Internet-Zeitschrift fur Kulturwissenschaften, 11.
Mkandawire, T., 1997, ‘The Social Sciences in Africa: Breaking Local Barriers and Negotiating International Presence’, African Studies Review, Vol. 40, no. 2.
Mkandawire, T. and Solubo, C., 2003, ‘Introduction: Towards the Broadening of Development Policy Dialogue for Africa’, in T. Mkandawire and C. Solubo, ed., African Voices on Structural Adjustment, Trenton, NJ.: Africa World Press.
Mphalele, E., 1963, ‘Polemics: The Dead End of African Literature’, Transition, 11.
Naim, M., 1985, Latin America’s Journey to the Market: From Macroeconomic Shocks to Institutional Therapy, San Francisco, California: International Center for Economic Growth Publication.
Nkrumah, K., 1970, Africa Must Unite, New York: International Publishers.
Nkrumah, K., 1964, ‘Address Delivered to Mark the Opening of the First International’, in L. Brown and M. Crowder, eds., The Proceedings of the First International Congress of Africanists, Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.
Onimode, B., 1989, The IMF, the World Bank, and the African debt, New Jersey: Zed Books.
Olukoshi, A. and Nyamnjoh, F. B., 2003, ‘Editorial’, CODESRIA Bulletin, no. 1.
Prah, K. K., 1995, African Languages for the Mass Education of Africans, Bonn: German Foundation for International Development Education Science and Documentation Centre.
Rathbone, R., 2000, Nkrumah & the Chiefs: The Politics of Chieftaincy in Ghana, 1951-60, Athens: Ohio University Press.
Said, E., 2003, ‘The Other America’, Al-Ahram Weekly, 63, March 20-26.
Sall, E., 2001, ‘The Money Game—Too Poor to Be Free,’ Unesco Courier, 54, 11.
Shivji, I. G., 1993, Intellectuals at the Hill: Essays and Talks, 1969-1993, Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press.
Soyinka, W., 1963, ‘Polemics: The Dead End of African Literature’, Transition, 11.
Wali, O., 1963, ‘The Dead End of African Literature’, Transition, 10.
wa Thiong’o, N., 1982, Devil on the Cross, London: Heinemann.
wa Thiong’o, N., 1986, Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature, Portsmouth, N.H.: James Currey.
wa Thiong’o, N., 1998, Penpoints, Gunpoints, and Dreams: Toward a Critical Theory of the Arts and the State in Africa, New York: Clarendon Press.
World Bank, 1997, World Development Report 1997: The State in a Changing World, New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press.
Yankah, K., 1996, ‘Displaced Academies and the Quest for a New World Academic Order’, Africa Today, Vol. 42, no. 3.
Zeleza, P. T., 1997, Manufacturing African Studies and Crises, Dakar: CODESRIA."