2 - The Role of NGOs in Fostering Development and Good Governance at the Local Level in Africa with a Focus on Kenya*
Corresponding Author(s) : Walter O. Oyugi
Africa Development,
Vol. 29 No. 4 (2004): Africa Development
Abstract
Non-goveramental organisations have since the colonial period played a major role in socio-economic development in Africa. This role has increased in the post independence period, especially from the 1980s, following the demon strated failure of the state all over the continent, as a credible provider of basic needs services to the poor both in the rural and urban slums. As a result, instead of channelling development assistance through the state, some donor agencies have during the last two decades or so, opted to do so through non-state actors - especially the NGOs. The Kenyan experience demonstrates that the NGO sector has since the 1980s emerged as a major player in the design and imple mentation of projects as well as the actual provision of basic needs services to the disadvantaged groups both in the rural and urban areas. Although they are individually engaged in diverse activities, the Kenyan data suggests that the concentration of their activities is - in the social sector (education, health, gen eral welfare). The operational strategies employed to reach the intended benefi ciaries varies between direct and indirect interventions depending on the serv ice to be delivered and the institutional configuration on the ground. Where NGOs have opted for direct linkage with service recipients, their activities have tended to elicit negative response from the state as the latter usually prefers to act as intermediary between non-state actors and the service recipients. The impact of NGOs has varied both in terms of quality and quantity of service provided. The variation assumes both service and areal (i.e. spatial) dimensions, and the factors accounting for the variation are the sources as well as commitment by the founders of the organ sions and objectives. The Kenyan case study demonstrates emerged as a major player in the provision of basics needs services.
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- Achieng, R. C. and Wellard, K. 1995, 'Agricultural Activities of Government and NGOs in Siaya', in Copestake and Wellard, NGOs and the State in Africa: Rethinking Roles in Sustainable Agricultural Development, London and New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Adejumobi, S., and Seteolu, D. 2002, 'Politics at the Margin: Community Based Organisations and Local Governance in Nigeria', in Oyugi W.O., (ed.), The Role of NGOs in Fostering Good Governance and Development at the Local Level in Africa, Nairobi: UNCRD Africa. Arum, G., 1995, 'Kenya Energy and Environment Organisation, 1981090' in Wellard, K. and Copestake, J., eds., 1993, NGOs and the State in Africa: Rethinking Roles in sustainable Agriculture Development, London and New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Ayee, R.A., 2002, 'The Role of NGOs in Fostering Good Governance and Development at the Local Level in Ghana', in Oyugi, W.O., (ed.), The Role of NGOs in Fostering Development and Governance at the Local Level in Africa, Nairobi: UNCRD Africa Office. Bench B., and Lipietz, B., 1998, 'Structuring Effective Development Oriented Interactions Between the State and Civil Society in SA: A Comparative Analysis of Mechanisms in Place', Report Compiled by the Transitional National Development Trust (TNDT) at the request of Gill Marcus, Deputy Minister of Finance, Pretoria. Beshara, M., 1999, 'The Egyptian NGO Sector: Prospects and Challenges', in Civil Society: Démocratisation in the Arab World, Vol. 8, No. 92, (Ibn Khaldun Center for Development Studies Monthly Publication). Bourne, L., and Seager J., 2000, 'National Urbanisation and Health Research Programme', Urban Health and Development Bulletin. Bratton, M., 1989, 'The Politics of NGO-Government Relations in Africa', World Development, Vol. 17, No. 4. Bratton, M., 1990, 'Non-governmental organizations in Africa: Can They Influence Government PolicyT Development and Change, 21, 87-118. Buck, L.E., 1995, 'Development ofParticipatory Approaches for Promoting Agro forestry', in Copestake, J. and Wellard, K., (eds.), 1993, NGOs and the State in A frica: Rethinking Roles in Sustainable Agricultural Development, London and New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Campwell, W, 1997, 'The Potential for Donor Mediation in NGO-State Relations ', Institute of Development Studies, Sussex. Charancle, J.M., 1996, 'Assessment of NGOs in Central Africa: Case Studies in Cameroon, The Congo, Gabon, and Central African Republic', for PVO-NGO/ NRMs Project and the Biodiversity Support Program. Clark, J., 1991, 'The Relationship Between the State and the Voluntary Sector', Washington DC, World Bank.This content downloaded from 154.125.121.197 on Sat, 04 Dec 2021 13:56:53 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
- Oyugi: NGOs as Development Actors in Africa 53 Clark, J., 1999, 'The Role of Non-Profit Organisations in Development: The Experience of the World Bank', Washington DC, World Bank. Cross, J., 1997, 'Development NGOs, the State andNeo-Liberalism: Competition, Partnership or Co-Conspiracy', in Proceedings of the 4th Annual Conference, Office of Graduate Studies and Research, The American University of Cairo. Duffield, M. and Prendergast, J., 1994, Without Troops and Tanks: Humanitarian Intervention in Ethiopia and Eritrea, Lawrenceville: NJ, Red Sea Press. Edwards, M., and Huîme, D., 1992, ' Scaling-Up the Developmental Impact of NGOs: Concepts and Experiences', in M. Edwards and D. Hulme (eds.), Making a Difference: NGOs and Development in a Changing World, London: Earthscan. Edwards, M., 1998, 'Are NGOs Overrated: Why and How to Say No', Current Issues in Comparative Education (online), Vol. 1, No. 1, www.cice.org. Edwards, M. and Hulme, D., 1998, 'Too Close for Comfort? The Impact of Official Aid on Non-governmental Organisations', Current Issues in Comparative Education (online), Vol. l,No. 1, http://www.tc.columbia.edu/cice.org. Edwards, M., 1999, Future positive: International co-operation in the 21st century, London: Earthscan and West Hartford, Kumarian Press. Farrington, J., Bebbington, A., with Wellard, K., and David J. Lewis, 1993, Reluctant Partners? Non-Governmental Organizations, the State and Sustainable Agricultural Development, London and New York: Routledge. Fowler, A., 1991, 'The Role of NGOs in Changing State-society Relations: Perspectives From Eastern and Southern Africa', Development Policy Review, Vol. 9. Fowler, A., 1995, 'NGOs and the Globalisation of Social Welfare: Perspectives from East Africa', in Semboja, J. and Therkildsen, Ole, 1995, Service Provision Under Stress in East Africa, London: James Currey. Fowler, A., 1995, 'Assessing NGO Performance: Difficulties, Dilemmas and a Way Ahead', in M. Edwards & Hulme, D. (eds.), Beyond the Magic Bullet: NGO Performance and Accountability in the Post-Cold War World, London: Earthscan, and West Hartford, Kumarian Press. Kaluli, J., 1995, 'NGO Involvement in Agricultural Activities in Machakos District', in Wellard, K. and Copestake, J. (eds.), 1993, NGOs and the State in Africa: Rethinking Roles in Sustainable Agricultural Development, London and New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Kandil, A., 1999, 'Egypt Country Profile. CIVICUS: World Alliance for Citizen Participation', Washington, DC [Online], Available: HYPERLINK http:// www.civicus.org/egypt.htmlhttp://www.civicus.org/egypt.html_ [1999, March 18]. Kanyinga, K., 1995, 'The Politics of Development Space in Kenya', in Semboja, J. and Therkildsen, Ole, (eds.), 1995, Service Provision Under Stress in East Africa, London: James Currey. Maipose, G, 2002, 'Centre-Local Relationship and the Role of NGOs in Fostering Good Governance and Development in Zambia', in Oyugi W.O., (ed), 2002, TheThis content downloaded from 154.125.121.197 on Sat, 04 Dec 2021 13:56:53 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
- Africa Development, Vol. XXIX, No. 4, 2004 Role of NGOs in Fostering Development and Governance at the Local Level in Africa, Nairobi: UNCRD Africa Office. Marzouk, M. 1996. 'The Associative Phenomenon in the Arab World: Engine of Democratization or Witness to the Crisis?', in D. Hulme & M. Edwards (Eds.), Too Close for Comfort? NGOs, States and Donors, London, Macmillan, and New York: St. Martins Press. Matanga, F.K., 2000, 'Civil Society and Politics in Africa: The Case of Kenya', Fourth International Conference of ISTR, Ireland. Moyo, S., Makumbe, J., and Raftopoulos B., 2000, NGOs: The State and Politics in Zimbabwe, SAPES Books. Mung'ala, P., 1995, 'Government Experiences of Collaboration with NGOs in Rural Afforestation'; in Wellard, K. and Copestake, J. (eds.), 1993, NGOs and the State in Africa: Rethinking Roles in Sustainable Agricultural Development, London and New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul.. Munishi, GK., 2002, 'Decentralized Management of Social Services Delivered by NGOs and the Government in Tanzania', in Oyugi W.O. (ed), 2002, The Role of NGOs in Fostering Development and Governance at the Local Level in Africa, Nairobi: UNCRD Africa Office. Mutiso, G C., 1985, 'Research Agenda: NGOs'contribution to development', in K. Kinyanjui (ed), Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) Contributions to Development, Nairobi Institute of Development Studies (IDS), Occasional paper No. 50. Namara, R.B., 2002, 'The Role of Ngos in Fostering Good Governance and Development at Local Levels: The Case Of Uganda', in Oyugi W.O., (ed), 2002, The Role of NGOs in Fostering Development and Governance at the Local Level in Africa, Nairobi: UNCRD Africa Office. Njuguna, Nge'the, 1991, In Search of NGOs, Nairobi, Institute of Development Studies, University of Nairobi. Published as a monograph. Non-Governmental Organisations Co-ordination Bureau, n.d., 'Towards a National Policy on Non-Governmental Organisations in Kenya', A draft working paper to be used as a guide in the formulation of a National Policy on NGOs. (Nairobi: Undated mimeo.) Overseas Development Institute (ODI), 1996, 'The Impact of NGOs Development Projects', Briefing Paper No. 2, www.odi.com. Oyugi, W.O., 2001, 'Decentralisation for Good Governance and Development: The Unending Debate', Regional Development Dialogue, Vol. 21/1, Spring, pp. III-XIX. Oyugi, W.O., 2002, 'The Role of NGOs in Fostering Development and Governance at the Local Level: The Experience of Kenya', in Oyugi W.O., (ed.), The Role of NGOs in Fostering Development and Governance at the Local Level in Africa, Nairobi: UNCRD Africa Office. Picciotto, R., 1996, 'Nelson, Paul. The World Bank and non-governmental organizations' (book review), Finance and Development, 33. Presence magazine, Nairobi, March/April 1996.This content downloaded from 154.125.121.197 on Sat, 04 Dec 2021 13:56:53 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
- Oyugi: NGOs as Development Actors in Africa 55 Republic of Kenya, 1970, Development Plan 1970/74, Nairobi: Government Printer. Robinson, M., 1993, 'Governance, Democracy and Conditionality: NGOs and the New Policy Agenda', in A. Clayton (ed.), Governance, Democracy and Conditionality: What Role for NGOs? Oxford: INTRAC. Salamon, L., 1993, 'The Global Associational Revolution: The Rise of the Third Sector on the World Scene', Occasional Papers No. 15. Baltimore: Institute for Policy Studies, Johns Hopkins University. Semboja, J. and Therkildsen, Ole, 1995, Service Provision Under Stress in East Africa, London: James Currey. Shaw, Timothy, 1990, 'Popular Participation in Non-Governmental Structures in Africa: Implications for Domestic Development', Africa Today, Vol. 37/3, 1990. Stromquist, N.P., 1998, 'NGOs in a New Paradigm of Civil Society', Current Issues in Comparative Education (online), Vol. 1, No. 1, www.cice.org. Tandon, Y., 2000, 'Reclaiming Africa's Agenda: Good Governance and the Role of NGOs in the African Context', A A PS Newsletter, New Series, Vol. 5, No. 2, May-August. The Non Profit Partnership (NPP), 2000, 'NGOs Do it Better: An Efficiency Analysis of NGOs in Development Delivery', www.npp.org.za. Totemeyer, G, 2002, 'The Role of NGOs in Namibia with Particular Emphasis on Regional and Local Governance and Development', in Oyugi W.O., (ed), 2002, The Role of NGOs in Fostering Development and Governance at the Local Level in Africa, Nairobi: UNCRD Africa Office. Van der Heijden, H., 1987, 'The Reconciliation of NGO Autonomy and Operational Effectiveness With Accountability to Donors', World Development, 15 (supplement), 103-112. Wellard, K. and Copestake, J. (eds.), 1993, NGOs and the State in Africa: Rethinking Roles in Sustainable Agricultural Development, London and New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
References
Achieng, R. C. and Wellard, K. 1995, 'Agricultural Activities of Government and NGOs in Siaya', in Copestake and Wellard, NGOs and the State in Africa: Rethinking Roles in Sustainable Agricultural Development, London and New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Adejumobi, S., and Seteolu, D. 2002, 'Politics at the Margin: Community Based Organisations and Local Governance in Nigeria', in Oyugi W.O., (ed.), The Role of NGOs in Fostering Good Governance and Development at the Local Level in Africa, Nairobi: UNCRD Africa. Arum, G., 1995, 'Kenya Energy and Environment Organisation, 1981090' in Wellard, K. and Copestake, J., eds., 1993, NGOs and the State in Africa: Rethinking Roles in sustainable Agriculture Development, London and New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Ayee, R.A., 2002, 'The Role of NGOs in Fostering Good Governance and Development at the Local Level in Ghana', in Oyugi, W.O., (ed.), The Role of NGOs in Fostering Development and Governance at the Local Level in Africa, Nairobi: UNCRD Africa Office. Bench B., and Lipietz, B., 1998, 'Structuring Effective Development Oriented Interactions Between the State and Civil Society in SA: A Comparative Analysis of Mechanisms in Place', Report Compiled by the Transitional National Development Trust (TNDT) at the request of Gill Marcus, Deputy Minister of Finance, Pretoria. Beshara, M., 1999, 'The Egyptian NGO Sector: Prospects and Challenges', in Civil Society: Démocratisation in the Arab World, Vol. 8, No. 92, (Ibn Khaldun Center for Development Studies Monthly Publication). Bourne, L., and Seager J., 2000, 'National Urbanisation and Health Research Programme', Urban Health and Development Bulletin. Bratton, M., 1989, 'The Politics of NGO-Government Relations in Africa', World Development, Vol. 17, No. 4. Bratton, M., 1990, 'Non-governmental organizations in Africa: Can They Influence Government PolicyT Development and Change, 21, 87-118. Buck, L.E., 1995, 'Development ofParticipatory Approaches for Promoting Agro forestry', in Copestake, J. and Wellard, K., (eds.), 1993, NGOs and the State in A frica: Rethinking Roles in Sustainable Agricultural Development, London and New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Campwell, W, 1997, 'The Potential for Donor Mediation in NGO-State Relations ', Institute of Development Studies, Sussex. Charancle, J.M., 1996, 'Assessment of NGOs in Central Africa: Case Studies in Cameroon, The Congo, Gabon, and Central African Republic', for PVO-NGO/ NRMs Project and the Biodiversity Support Program. Clark, J., 1991, 'The Relationship Between the State and the Voluntary Sector', Washington DC, World Bank.This content downloaded from 154.125.121.197 on Sat, 04 Dec 2021 13:56:53 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Oyugi: NGOs as Development Actors in Africa 53 Clark, J., 1999, 'The Role of Non-Profit Organisations in Development: The Experience of the World Bank', Washington DC, World Bank. Cross, J., 1997, 'Development NGOs, the State andNeo-Liberalism: Competition, Partnership or Co-Conspiracy', in Proceedings of the 4th Annual Conference, Office of Graduate Studies and Research, The American University of Cairo. Duffield, M. and Prendergast, J., 1994, Without Troops and Tanks: Humanitarian Intervention in Ethiopia and Eritrea, Lawrenceville: NJ, Red Sea Press. Edwards, M., and Huîme, D., 1992, ' Scaling-Up the Developmental Impact of NGOs: Concepts and Experiences', in M. Edwards and D. Hulme (eds.), Making a Difference: NGOs and Development in a Changing World, London: Earthscan. Edwards, M., 1998, 'Are NGOs Overrated: Why and How to Say No', Current Issues in Comparative Education (online), Vol. 1, No. 1, www.cice.org. Edwards, M. and Hulme, D., 1998, 'Too Close for Comfort? The Impact of Official Aid on Non-governmental Organisations', Current Issues in Comparative Education (online), Vol. l,No. 1, http://www.tc.columbia.edu/cice.org. Edwards, M., 1999, Future positive: International co-operation in the 21st century, London: Earthscan and West Hartford, Kumarian Press. Farrington, J., Bebbington, A., with Wellard, K., and David J. Lewis, 1993, Reluctant Partners? Non-Governmental Organizations, the State and Sustainable Agricultural Development, London and New York: Routledge. Fowler, A., 1991, 'The Role of NGOs in Changing State-society Relations: Perspectives From Eastern and Southern Africa', Development Policy Review, Vol. 9. Fowler, A., 1995, 'NGOs and the Globalisation of Social Welfare: Perspectives from East Africa', in Semboja, J. and Therkildsen, Ole, 1995, Service Provision Under Stress in East Africa, London: James Currey. Fowler, A., 1995, 'Assessing NGO Performance: Difficulties, Dilemmas and a Way Ahead', in M. Edwards & Hulme, D. (eds.), Beyond the Magic Bullet: NGO Performance and Accountability in the Post-Cold War World, London: Earthscan, and West Hartford, Kumarian Press. Kaluli, J., 1995, 'NGO Involvement in Agricultural Activities in Machakos District', in Wellard, K. and Copestake, J. (eds.), 1993, NGOs and the State in Africa: Rethinking Roles in Sustainable Agricultural Development, London and New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Kandil, A., 1999, 'Egypt Country Profile. CIVICUS: World Alliance for Citizen Participation', Washington, DC [Online], Available: HYPERLINK http:// www.civicus.org/egypt.htmlhttp://www.civicus.org/egypt.html_ [1999, March 18]. Kanyinga, K., 1995, 'The Politics of Development Space in Kenya', in Semboja, J. and Therkildsen, Ole, (eds.), 1995, Service Provision Under Stress in East Africa, London: James Currey. Maipose, G, 2002, 'Centre-Local Relationship and the Role of NGOs in Fostering Good Governance and Development in Zambia', in Oyugi W.O., (ed), 2002, TheThis content downloaded from 154.125.121.197 on Sat, 04 Dec 2021 13:56:53 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Africa Development, Vol. XXIX, No. 4, 2004 Role of NGOs in Fostering Development and Governance at the Local Level in Africa, Nairobi: UNCRD Africa Office. Marzouk, M. 1996. 'The Associative Phenomenon in the Arab World: Engine of Democratization or Witness to the Crisis?', in D. Hulme & M. Edwards (Eds.), Too Close for Comfort? NGOs, States and Donors, London, Macmillan, and New York: St. Martins Press. Matanga, F.K., 2000, 'Civil Society and Politics in Africa: The Case of Kenya', Fourth International Conference of ISTR, Ireland. Moyo, S., Makumbe, J., and Raftopoulos B., 2000, NGOs: The State and Politics in Zimbabwe, SAPES Books. Mung'ala, P., 1995, 'Government Experiences of Collaboration with NGOs in Rural Afforestation'; in Wellard, K. and Copestake, J. (eds.), 1993, NGOs and the State in Africa: Rethinking Roles in Sustainable Agricultural Development, London and New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul.. Munishi, GK., 2002, 'Decentralized Management of Social Services Delivered by NGOs and the Government in Tanzania', in Oyugi W.O. (ed), 2002, The Role of NGOs in Fostering Development and Governance at the Local Level in Africa, Nairobi: UNCRD Africa Office. Mutiso, G C., 1985, 'Research Agenda: NGOs'contribution to development', in K. Kinyanjui (ed), Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) Contributions to Development, Nairobi Institute of Development Studies (IDS), Occasional paper No. 50. Namara, R.B., 2002, 'The Role of Ngos in Fostering Good Governance and Development at Local Levels: The Case Of Uganda', in Oyugi W.O., (ed), 2002, The Role of NGOs in Fostering Development and Governance at the Local Level in Africa, Nairobi: UNCRD Africa Office. Njuguna, Nge'the, 1991, In Search of NGOs, Nairobi, Institute of Development Studies, University of Nairobi. Published as a monograph. Non-Governmental Organisations Co-ordination Bureau, n.d., 'Towards a National Policy on Non-Governmental Organisations in Kenya', A draft working paper to be used as a guide in the formulation of a National Policy on NGOs. (Nairobi: Undated mimeo.) Overseas Development Institute (ODI), 1996, 'The Impact of NGOs Development Projects', Briefing Paper No. 2, www.odi.com. Oyugi, W.O., 2001, 'Decentralisation for Good Governance and Development: The Unending Debate', Regional Development Dialogue, Vol. 21/1, Spring, pp. III-XIX. Oyugi, W.O., 2002, 'The Role of NGOs in Fostering Development and Governance at the Local Level: The Experience of Kenya', in Oyugi W.O., (ed.), The Role of NGOs in Fostering Development and Governance at the Local Level in Africa, Nairobi: UNCRD Africa Office. Picciotto, R., 1996, 'Nelson, Paul. The World Bank and non-governmental organizations' (book review), Finance and Development, 33. Presence magazine, Nairobi, March/April 1996.This content downloaded from 154.125.121.197 on Sat, 04 Dec 2021 13:56:53 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Oyugi: NGOs as Development Actors in Africa 55 Republic of Kenya, 1970, Development Plan 1970/74, Nairobi: Government Printer. Robinson, M., 1993, 'Governance, Democracy and Conditionality: NGOs and the New Policy Agenda', in A. Clayton (ed.), Governance, Democracy and Conditionality: What Role for NGOs? Oxford: INTRAC. Salamon, L., 1993, 'The Global Associational Revolution: The Rise of the Third Sector on the World Scene', Occasional Papers No. 15. Baltimore: Institute for Policy Studies, Johns Hopkins University. Semboja, J. and Therkildsen, Ole, 1995, Service Provision Under Stress in East Africa, London: James Currey. Shaw, Timothy, 1990, 'Popular Participation in Non-Governmental Structures in Africa: Implications for Domestic Development', Africa Today, Vol. 37/3, 1990. Stromquist, N.P., 1998, 'NGOs in a New Paradigm of Civil Society', Current Issues in Comparative Education (online), Vol. 1, No. 1, www.cice.org. Tandon, Y., 2000, 'Reclaiming Africa's Agenda: Good Governance and the Role of NGOs in the African Context', A A PS Newsletter, New Series, Vol. 5, No. 2, May-August. The Non Profit Partnership (NPP), 2000, 'NGOs Do it Better: An Efficiency Analysis of NGOs in Development Delivery', www.npp.org.za. Totemeyer, G, 2002, 'The Role of NGOs in Namibia with Particular Emphasis on Regional and Local Governance and Development', in Oyugi W.O., (ed), 2002, The Role of NGOs in Fostering Development and Governance at the Local Level in Africa, Nairobi: UNCRD Africa Office. Van der Heijden, H., 1987, 'The Reconciliation of NGO Autonomy and Operational Effectiveness With Accountability to Donors', World Development, 15 (supplement), 103-112. Wellard, K. and Copestake, J. (eds.), 1993, NGOs and the State in Africa: Rethinking Roles in Sustainable Agricultural Development, London and New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul.