11 - Social Capital and Food Security amongst Women in Smallholder Farming in the Face of Climate Change in Bikita, Zimbabwe
Africa Development,
Vol. 47 No. 3 (2022): Africa Development: Special Issue on Agrarian Change, Food Security, Migration and Sustainable Development in Senegal and Zimbabwe
Abstract
Food insecurity is a devastating setback for vulnerable women in smallholder farming in Zimbabwe. Women’s low or limited adaptive capacity is caused by diverse factors, including , which include poverty, an unstable economy, political crisis and climate change. Adaptive strategies that differ from the conventional national and civic interventions to circumvent these factors have yielded subtle food security outcomes. As a result, there are growing calls for the adoption of social capital as an alternative grassroots-based adaptive strategy. This study examined the potential for and challenges faced by women who use social capital in adapting to food insecurity. Using in-depth interviews, focus group discussions and key informant interviews it revealed that women in smallholder farming were utilising bonding, bridging and linking capital as a means of adaptation. These three types of capital were operationalised in four projects: Food For Assets (FFA), community gardening, the Boer goat project and Fushai. It emerged that three of the projects performed better in some wards but did not do well in others. Despite its potential, the Boer goat project was riddled with challenges, which emanated from the absence of bonding capital. I therefore conclude and recommend that social capital is critical for women in food insecurity adaptation. However, it needs to be buttressed by a harmonious relationship between the three forms of social capital and all stakeholders for sustainability to be realised.
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- AGRA, 2014, Africa Agriculture Status Report 2014: Climate change and smallholder agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa, Nairobi: Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa. Agrawal A., 2008, Social Dimension of Climate Change, Social Development Department, Washington DC: The World Bank.
- Aldrich, D. P., 2012, Building resilience: Social capital in post-disaster recovery, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
- Barnett, J. and O’Neill, S., 2010, Maladaptation, Global Environmental Change, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 211–213.
- Mafongoya: Social Capital and Food Security in Bikita, Zimbabwe 271
- Bernier, Q. and Meinzen-Dick, R., 2014, Networks for resilience: The role of social capital, Washington, DC: International Food Research Policy Institute (IFPRI), http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/2020resilienceconfpaper04. pdf Accessed 21 August 2020.
- Chagutah, T., 2010, Climate Change, Vulnerability and Adaptation Preparedness in South Africa, Cape Town: Heinrich Böll Stiftung Southern Africa.
- Chisi, D., 2019, Women Farming Contribution Vital to Growth of Rural Economies, All Africa, 13 March, https://allafrica.com/stories/201903130636.html Accessed August 2020.
- Coleman, F. J. S., 1990, Foundations of Social Theory, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- Costa, D. L. and Kahn, M. E., 2003, Civic engagement and community heterogeneity: An economist’s perspective, Perspectives on Politics, Vol. 1, No. 01, pp. 103–111.
- Di Gregorio, S., Hagedorn, K., Kirk, M. and Korf, B., 2012. Property Rights and Collective Action for Poverty Reduction: A Framework for Analysis, in Mwangi, E., Markelova, H. and Meinzen-Dick, R., eds, Collective Action and Property Rights for Poverty Reduction: Insights from Africa and Asia, Philadelphia, PA: Penn Press for International Food Policy Research Institute, pp. 25–48.
- Dodman, D. and Mitlin, D., 2013, Challenges for community based adaptation: Discovering the potential for transformation, Journal of International Development, Vol. 2, No. 5, pp. 640–659.
- Flores, M. and Rello, F., 2003, Social Capital and Poverty Lessons from Cases Studies in Mexico and Central America, FAO Working Paper.
- Granovetter, M., 1983, The strength of weak ties: A network theory revisited, Sociological Theory, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 201–233.
- Grootaert, C. and Narayan, D., 2004, Local Level Institutions, Poverty and Household Welfare in Bolivia, World Development, Vol. 27, No. 3, pp. 1179–1198.
- Gugerty, M. K. and Kremer, M., 2008, Outside Funding and the Dynamics of Participation in Community Associations, American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 52, No. 3, pp. 104–115.
- Gutsa, I., 2014, Climate Change and Policy Making in Zimbabwe: In search of evidence based policy making? Acta Universitaria, Vol. 24, No. 6, pp. 21–28.
- Hawkins, R. L. and Maurer, K., 2010, Bonding, bridging and linking: How social capital operated in New Orleans following Hurricane Katrina, British Journal of Social Work, Vol. 40, No. 6, pp. 1777–1793.
- Hill, K. Q., and Matsubayashi, T., 2005, Civic engagement and mass–elite policy agenda agreement in American communities, American Political Science Review, Vol. 99, No. 2, pp. 215–224.
- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2007, Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, Contribution of Working Group 1, 11 and 111 to the Fourth Assessment Report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K. and Reinsinger, A., eds), Geneva: Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change.
- Kas an, A., 2013, Principles for Equitable Adaptation, Centre for Progressive Reform, San Francisco.
- Africa Development, Volume XLVII, No. 3, 2022
- Manjengwa, J. and Matema, C., 2014, Children and climate change in Zimbabwe, Harare: UNICEF.
- Mayoux, L., 2001, Tackling the down side: Social capital, women’s empowerment and microfinance in Cameroon, Development and Change, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 435–464.
- Moser, C., 2008, Pro-poor Climate Change Adaptation in the Urban Centres of Low and Middle-Income Countries, London, UK: World Bank and IIED.
- Njuki, J. M., Mapila, M. T., Zingore, S. and Devore, R., 2008, The Dynamics of Social Capital in Influencing Use of Soil Management Options in the Chinyanja Triangle of Southern Africa, Ecology and Society, Vol. 132, p. 9.
- Reid, H., Ampomah, G., Olazábal Prera, M., Rabbani, G. and Zvigadza, S., 2012, Southern voices on climate policy choices: Analysis of and lessons learned from civil society advocacy on climate change, London, UK: International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED).
- Rhodes, J., 2012, The ties that divide: Bonding social capital, religious friendship networks, and political tolerance among Evangelicals, Sociological Inquiry, Vol. 82, No. 2, pp. 163–186.
- Pasteur, K., 2011, From Vulnerability to Resilience: A Framework for Analysis and Action to Build Community Resilience, Rugby, UK: Practical Action Publishing. Pelling, M., 2003, The vulnerability of cities: Natural Disasters and Social Resilience, London, UK: Earthscan.
- Pigeon, P., 2002, Réflections sur la géographie des risqué dits naturels, Nice: Université Nice-Sophia Antipolis.
- Portes, A. and Landholt, P., 1996, The Downside of Social Capital, The American Prospect, Vol. 26, p. 1822.
- Putnam, R. D., 1993, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community, New York: Simon and Schuster.
- Sanginga, P. C., Best, R., Chitiske, C., Delve, R., Kaaria, S. and Kirkby, R., 2004, Enabling rural innovation in Africa. An approach for integrating farmer participation in research and market orientation for building the assets of rural farmers, Uganda Journal of Agricultural Sciences, Vol. 9, pp. 942–957.
- Scott, James C., 1984, Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
- Szreter, S. and Woolcock, M., 2004, Health by Association? Social capital, Social Theory, and the Political Economy of Public Health, International Journal of Epidemiology, Vol. 33, pp. 650–67.
- Walker, D. H., Thorne, P. J., Sinclair, F. L., Thapa, B. and Wood, C. D., 1999, A systems approach to comparing indigenous and scientific knowledge: consistency and discriminatory power of indigenous and laboratory assessment of the nutritive value of tree fodder, Agricultural Systems, Vol. 62, Issue 2, pp. 87–103.
- Woolcock, M. and Narayan, D., 2000, Social Capital: Implications for Development Theory, Research and Policy, World Bank Research Observer, Vol. 15, pp. 225–249. ZIMSTAT, 2013, Poverty and Poverty Datum Line Analysis in Zimbabwe 2011/12, Harare: ZIMSTAT, https://thousandcurrents.org/partners/zimsoff Accessed August 2020.
References
AGRA, 2014, Africa Agriculture Status Report 2014: Climate change and smallholder agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa, Nairobi: Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa. Agrawal A., 2008, Social Dimension of Climate Change, Social Development Department, Washington DC: The World Bank.
Aldrich, D. P., 2012, Building resilience: Social capital in post-disaster recovery, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Barnett, J. and O’Neill, S., 2010, Maladaptation, Global Environmental Change, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 211–213.
Mafongoya: Social Capital and Food Security in Bikita, Zimbabwe 271
Bernier, Q. and Meinzen-Dick, R., 2014, Networks for resilience: The role of social capital, Washington, DC: International Food Research Policy Institute (IFPRI), http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/2020resilienceconfpaper04. pdf Accessed 21 August 2020.
Chagutah, T., 2010, Climate Change, Vulnerability and Adaptation Preparedness in South Africa, Cape Town: Heinrich Böll Stiftung Southern Africa.
Chisi, D., 2019, Women Farming Contribution Vital to Growth of Rural Economies, All Africa, 13 March, https://allafrica.com/stories/201903130636.html Accessed August 2020.
Coleman, F. J. S., 1990, Foundations of Social Theory, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Costa, D. L. and Kahn, M. E., 2003, Civic engagement and community heterogeneity: An economist’s perspective, Perspectives on Politics, Vol. 1, No. 01, pp. 103–111.
Di Gregorio, S., Hagedorn, K., Kirk, M. and Korf, B., 2012. Property Rights and Collective Action for Poverty Reduction: A Framework for Analysis, in Mwangi, E., Markelova, H. and Meinzen-Dick, R., eds, Collective Action and Property Rights for Poverty Reduction: Insights from Africa and Asia, Philadelphia, PA: Penn Press for International Food Policy Research Institute, pp. 25–48.
Dodman, D. and Mitlin, D., 2013, Challenges for community based adaptation: Discovering the potential for transformation, Journal of International Development, Vol. 2, No. 5, pp. 640–659.
Flores, M. and Rello, F., 2003, Social Capital and Poverty Lessons from Cases Studies in Mexico and Central America, FAO Working Paper.
Granovetter, M., 1983, The strength of weak ties: A network theory revisited, Sociological Theory, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 201–233.
Grootaert, C. and Narayan, D., 2004, Local Level Institutions, Poverty and Household Welfare in Bolivia, World Development, Vol. 27, No. 3, pp. 1179–1198.
Gugerty, M. K. and Kremer, M., 2008, Outside Funding and the Dynamics of Participation in Community Associations, American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 52, No. 3, pp. 104–115.
Gutsa, I., 2014, Climate Change and Policy Making in Zimbabwe: In search of evidence based policy making? Acta Universitaria, Vol. 24, No. 6, pp. 21–28.
Hawkins, R. L. and Maurer, K., 2010, Bonding, bridging and linking: How social capital operated in New Orleans following Hurricane Katrina, British Journal of Social Work, Vol. 40, No. 6, pp. 1777–1793.
Hill, K. Q., and Matsubayashi, T., 2005, Civic engagement and mass–elite policy agenda agreement in American communities, American Political Science Review, Vol. 99, No. 2, pp. 215–224.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2007, Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, Contribution of Working Group 1, 11 and 111 to the Fourth Assessment Report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K. and Reinsinger, A., eds), Geneva: Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change.
Kas an, A., 2013, Principles for Equitable Adaptation, Centre for Progressive Reform, San Francisco.
Africa Development, Volume XLVII, No. 3, 2022
Manjengwa, J. and Matema, C., 2014, Children and climate change in Zimbabwe, Harare: UNICEF.
Mayoux, L., 2001, Tackling the down side: Social capital, women’s empowerment and microfinance in Cameroon, Development and Change, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 435–464.
Moser, C., 2008, Pro-poor Climate Change Adaptation in the Urban Centres of Low and Middle-Income Countries, London, UK: World Bank and IIED.
Njuki, J. M., Mapila, M. T., Zingore, S. and Devore, R., 2008, The Dynamics of Social Capital in Influencing Use of Soil Management Options in the Chinyanja Triangle of Southern Africa, Ecology and Society, Vol. 132, p. 9.
Reid, H., Ampomah, G., Olazábal Prera, M., Rabbani, G. and Zvigadza, S., 2012, Southern voices on climate policy choices: Analysis of and lessons learned from civil society advocacy on climate change, London, UK: International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED).
Rhodes, J., 2012, The ties that divide: Bonding social capital, religious friendship networks, and political tolerance among Evangelicals, Sociological Inquiry, Vol. 82, No. 2, pp. 163–186.
Pasteur, K., 2011, From Vulnerability to Resilience: A Framework for Analysis and Action to Build Community Resilience, Rugby, UK: Practical Action Publishing. Pelling, M., 2003, The vulnerability of cities: Natural Disasters and Social Resilience, London, UK: Earthscan.
Pigeon, P., 2002, Réflections sur la géographie des risqué dits naturels, Nice: Université Nice-Sophia Antipolis.
Portes, A. and Landholt, P., 1996, The Downside of Social Capital, The American Prospect, Vol. 26, p. 1822.
Putnam, R. D., 1993, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community, New York: Simon and Schuster.
Sanginga, P. C., Best, R., Chitiske, C., Delve, R., Kaaria, S. and Kirkby, R., 2004, Enabling rural innovation in Africa. An approach for integrating farmer participation in research and market orientation for building the assets of rural farmers, Uganda Journal of Agricultural Sciences, Vol. 9, pp. 942–957.
Scott, James C., 1984, Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Szreter, S. and Woolcock, M., 2004, Health by Association? Social capital, Social Theory, and the Political Economy of Public Health, International Journal of Epidemiology, Vol. 33, pp. 650–67.
Walker, D. H., Thorne, P. J., Sinclair, F. L., Thapa, B. and Wood, C. D., 1999, A systems approach to comparing indigenous and scientific knowledge: consistency and discriminatory power of indigenous and laboratory assessment of the nutritive value of tree fodder, Agricultural Systems, Vol. 62, Issue 2, pp. 87–103.
Woolcock, M. and Narayan, D., 2000, Social Capital: Implications for Development Theory, Research and Policy, World Bank Research Observer, Vol. 15, pp. 225–249. ZIMSTAT, 2013, Poverty and Poverty Datum Line Analysis in Zimbabwe 2011/12, Harare: ZIMSTAT, https://thousandcurrents.org/partners/zimsoff Accessed August 2020.