6 - She is so Pretty, Look at her Hair’: Perspectives on the Racialisation of Mixed- Race Persons in Ghana
Corresponding Author(s) : Georgina Yaa Oduro
Africa Development,
Vol. 48 No. 3 (2023): Africa Development
Abstract
This article interrogates the processes of the racialisation of hair and skin colour of ‘mixed-race’ Ghanaians in the specific context of Ghana. The article draws on the findings of a larger qualitative multisite study that explored the lived experiences and identity construction of Ghanaian mixed-race persons living in Ghana and Canada, Informed by race and racialisation theories, the article argues that hair politics cannot be discussed without considering how skin colour and gender also contribute to shaping the racial categorisation of mixed-race individuals in Ghana. The authors show how Ghanaian society ‘others’ and racialises mixed-race Ghanaians (for example, through school regulations on hair and hair style); how mixed-race individuals navigate the racial gaze, discourses and practices around their body; how they reproduce and challenge racialised considerations and imaginaries; and how they perform their own racial identities through their hair. The article links these narratives with the ideals of white racial hegemony that permeate society. Acknowledging mixed-race Ghanaians’ experiences of privilege, the authors argue that the valuation of their whiteness by the majority population is not straightforward and does not lead mixed-race individuals to self-identify as whites. Mixed-race Ghanaians, rather, have fluid experiences i terms of privileges and discrimination based on context and interactions.
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- Agyeman, E.A., and Amoako-Gyampah, A.K., 2019, 'Cross-Cultural Ties between Ghana and Egypt: The Agency of the Egyptian Community in Accra, Ghana', African Human Mobility Review, pp. 1637.
- Ahmed, S., 1999, ‘She’ll Wake Up One of These Days and Find She’s Turned into a Nigger’: Passing through Hybridity', Theory, Culture & Society, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 87–106.
- Akyeampong, E., 2006, 'Race, Identity and Citizenship in Black Afric: The Case of the Lebanese in Ghana', Africa, Vol. 76, No. 3, pp. 297–323.
- Akyeampong, E., 2004, 'Memories of place and belonging: identity, citizenship, and the Lebanese in Ghana' Ghana Studies, 7(1), pp. 25-42.
- Alubafi, M.F., Ramphalile, M., and Rankoana, A.S., 2018, 'The Shifting Image of Black Women’s Hair in Tswane (Pretoria), South Africa', Cogent Social Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 1, review article 1471184.
- Ampofo, A.A., 2004, 'Mothering among black and white non-ghanaian women in Ghana', JENdA: A journal of culture and african women studies, (5).
- Asante, G., 2016, 'Glocalized whiteness: Sustaining and reproducing whiteness through ‘skin toning’ in post-colonial Ghana', Journal of International and Intercultural Communication, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 87–103.
- Bauer, J.J., and McAdams, D.P., 2000, 'Competence, relatedness, and autonomy in life stories', Psychological Inquiry, Vol. 11, pp. 276–279.
- Banks, I., 2000, Hair matters: beauty, power, and African American women’s consciousness, New York: New York University Press.
- Blay, Y.A., 2011, 'Skin Bleaching and Global White Supremacy: By way of Introduction', Journal of Pan African Studies, Vol. 4, No. 4.
- Bilge, S., 2010, 'Recent feminist outlooks on intersectionality', Diogenes, Vol. 57, No. 1, pp. 58–72.
- Bilge, S., 2020, 'The fungibility of intersectionality: An Afropessimist reading', Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 43, No. 13, pp. 2298–2326.
- Chapman, Y. M., 2007, ‘I am Not my Hair! Or am I?’: Black Women’s Transformative Experience in their Self Perceptions of Abroad and at Home, Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, Georgia State University.
- Charles, C., 2012, Skin Bleaching: The Complexion of Identity Beauty, and Fashion. The Meaning of Dress, SSRN, 18 June, https://ssrn.com/abstract=2372176.
- Chin, E., 2015, Commodity Racism, in The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Consumption and Consumer Studies, https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118989463.wbeccs049.
- Craig, M., 2002, Ain’t I a Beauty Queen: Blacks Women, Beauty and the Politics of Race, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Crenshaw, K., 1989, 'Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics', University of Chicago Legal Forum, Vol. 8.
- Daniel, G.R., Kina, L., Dariotis, W.M., and Fojas, C., 2014, 'Emerging paradigms in critical mixed race studies, Journal of Critical Mixed Race Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1.
- Darkwah, A., and Adomako Ampofo, A., 2008, 'Race, Gender and Global Love: Non-Ghanaian Wives, Insiders or Outsiders in Ghana?' International Journal of Sociology of the Family, Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 187–208.
- Dione Rosado, S., 2003, 'No Nubian knots or nappy locks: Discussing the politics of hair among women of African descent in the diaspora. A report on research in progress', Transforming Anthropology, Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 6–63.
- Dosekun, S., 2020, Fashioning postfeminism: Spectacular femininity and transnational culture, Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press.
- Ellis-Hervey, N., Doss, A., Davis, D., Nicks, R., and Araisa, P., 2016, 'African American Personal Presentation: Psychology of Hair and Self-Perception', Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 47, No. 8, pp. 869–882.
- Erasmus, Z., 1997, ‘Oe! My Hare Gaan Huistoe’: Hairstyling as Black Cultural Practice', Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity, Vol. 32, pp. 11–16.
- Fanon, F., 2008, Black skin, white masks, New York: Grove Press.
- Freeman, M., 1993, Rewriting the self: History, Memory, Narrative, New York: Routledge. Gonzalez-Sobrino, B., and Goss, D.R., 2019, Exploring the mechanisms of racialisation beyond the black–white binary, Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 42, No. 4, pp. 505–510, DOI: 10.1080/01419870.2018.1444781.
- Hall, S., 2007, It’s time for foundation, in Sims, J. M., ed., Mixed heritage: identity, policy and practice, London, UK: Runnymede Trust, pp. 24–25.
- Haritaworn, J., 2009, 'Hybrid Border-Crossers? Towards a Radical Socialisation of ‘Mixed Race’’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 115–132.
- Hirsch, A., 2019, Brit(ish): On Race, Identity and Belonging, New York: Vintage Publishers.
- Ho, C.G.Y., 2012, Living in liminality: Chinese migrancy in Ghana, PhD dissertation for University of California, Santa Cruz.
- Hochman, A., 2019, Racialization: a defense of the concept, Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 42, No. 8, pp. 1245–1262, DOI: 10.1080/01419870.2018.1527937.
- Hunter, M., 2007, The Persistent Problem of Colourism: Skin Tone, Status and Inequality, Sociology Compass, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 237–254.
- Johnson, T.A., and Bankhead, T., 2014, ‘Hair it is’: Examining the Experience of Black Women with Natural Hair', Open Journal of Social Sciences Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 86–100.
- Joseph-Salisbury, R., and Connelly, L.J., 2018, ‘If your hair is relaxed, white people are relaxed, if your hair is nappy, they are not happy’: Black hair as a site of ‘post- racial’ social control in English Schools, Social Sciences, Vol. 7, No. 11, p. 219.
- Lever, J.T., 1970, 'Mulatto Influence on the Gold Coast in the Early Nineteenth Century: Jan Nieser of Elmina', African Historical Studies, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 253–261, doi:10.2307/216216.
- Madlela, K., 2018, Black Hair Politics: The Representation of African Women in True Love Magazine Front Covers and Hair Advertisements, PhD thesis, Department of Visual Arts, Faculty of Humanities, University of Pretoria.
- Mahtani, M., and Moreno, A., 2001, 'Same Difference: Towards a More Unified Discourse in ‘Mixed Race Theory’’, in Parker, D. and Song, M., eds, Rethinking ‘Mixed Race’, London, UK: Pluto Books, pp. 65–75.
- Mercer, K., 1987, 'Black Hair/Style Politics', New Formations, No. 3, pp. 33–54.
- Miles, M.B., Huberman, A.M., and Saldana, J., 2013, Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook, 3rd ed, Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
- Nyamnjoh, F., and Fuh, D., 2014, 'Africans Consuming Hair, Africans Consumed by Hair', Africa Insight, Vol. 44, No. 1, pp. 52–68.
- Netshia, S., 2017, The Power of Hair: The Politics of Hair in a (South) African Context, http://ipip-project.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/The-power-of-Hair.pdf, accessed 9 December 2021.
- Omi, M., and Winant, H., 1994, Racial Formation in the US: From the 1960s to the 1990s, New York: Routledge.
- Paragg, J., 2015, ‘‘Canadian-first’: Mixed race self-identification and Canadian belonging’, Canadian Ethnic Studies, Vol. 47, No. 2, pp. 21–44.
- Paragg, J., 2017, ‘‘What are you’: Mixed-Race Responses to the Racial Gaze’, Ethnicities, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 277–298.Patton, T.O., 2006, African American women and their struggles with beauty, body image, and hair, National Women’s Studies Association Journal, Vol. 18, pp. 24–51, doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2354.2006.00387.
- Phoenix, A., 2014, 'Colourism and the politics of beauty', Feminist Review, Vol. 108, pp. 97–105.
- Pierre, J., 2008, ‘‘I Like Your Colour!’ Skin bleaching and geographies of race in urban Ghana’, Feminist Review, Vol. 90, pp. 9–29.
- Pierre, J., 2013, The Predicament of Blackness: Postcolonial Ghana and the Politics of Race, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
- Rocha, Z.L. and Yeoh, B.S., 2021, Hierarchies of mixedness: Hybridity, mixed-race racisms and belonging for Eurasians in Singapore, Ethnic and Racial Studies, https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2021.1921235.
- Senghor, L.S., 1966, 'Negritude: A humanism of the twentieth century', in Grinker, R.R., Lubkemann, S.C. and Steiner, C.B., eds, 2010, Perspectives on Africa: A reader in culture, history and representation, Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 629–636.
- Storrs, D., 1999, 'Whiteness as stigma: Essentialist identity work by mixed-race women', Symbolic Interaction, Vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 187–212.
- Thomas, T., 2013, ‘‘Hair’ They Are: The Ideologies of Black Hair’, The York Review, Vol. 9, No. 1.
- Thompson, C., 2009, 'Black women, beauty, and hair as a matter of being', Women’s Studies: An Inter-Disciplinary Journal, Vol. 38, No. 8, pp. 831–856.
- Van Zyl-Hermann, D., and Boersema, J., 2017, 'Introduction: the politics of whiteness in Africa', Africa, Vol. 87, No. 4, pp. 651–661.
- Varro, G., 2008, 'Mettre la mixité à la place de l’origine', in Collet, B., and Philippe, C., eds, Mixités. Variations autour d’une notion transversale, Paris: L’Harmattan, pp. 201–218.
- White, S.B., 2005, ‘Releasing the Pursuit of ‘Bouncin and Behavin’ Hair: Natural Hair a an Afrocentric Feminist Aesthetic for Beauty’, International Journal of Media and Culture, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 295–308.
References
Agyeman, E.A., and Amoako-Gyampah, A.K., 2019, 'Cross-Cultural Ties between Ghana and Egypt: The Agency of the Egyptian Community in Accra, Ghana', African Human Mobility Review, pp. 1637.
Ahmed, S., 1999, ‘She’ll Wake Up One of These Days and Find She’s Turned into a Nigger’: Passing through Hybridity', Theory, Culture & Society, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 87–106.
Akyeampong, E., 2006, 'Race, Identity and Citizenship in Black Afric: The Case of the Lebanese in Ghana', Africa, Vol. 76, No. 3, pp. 297–323.
Akyeampong, E., 2004, 'Memories of place and belonging: identity, citizenship, and the Lebanese in Ghana' Ghana Studies, 7(1), pp. 25-42.
Alubafi, M.F., Ramphalile, M., and Rankoana, A.S., 2018, 'The Shifting Image of Black Women’s Hair in Tswane (Pretoria), South Africa', Cogent Social Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 1, review article 1471184.
Ampofo, A.A., 2004, 'Mothering among black and white non-ghanaian women in Ghana', JENdA: A journal of culture and african women studies, (5).
Asante, G., 2016, 'Glocalized whiteness: Sustaining and reproducing whiteness through ‘skin toning’ in post-colonial Ghana', Journal of International and Intercultural Communication, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 87–103.
Bauer, J.J., and McAdams, D.P., 2000, 'Competence, relatedness, and autonomy in life stories', Psychological Inquiry, Vol. 11, pp. 276–279.
Banks, I., 2000, Hair matters: beauty, power, and African American women’s consciousness, New York: New York University Press.
Blay, Y.A., 2011, 'Skin Bleaching and Global White Supremacy: By way of Introduction', Journal of Pan African Studies, Vol. 4, No. 4.
Bilge, S., 2010, 'Recent feminist outlooks on intersectionality', Diogenes, Vol. 57, No. 1, pp. 58–72.
Bilge, S., 2020, 'The fungibility of intersectionality: An Afropessimist reading', Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 43, No. 13, pp. 2298–2326.
Chapman, Y. M., 2007, ‘I am Not my Hair! Or am I?’: Black Women’s Transformative Experience in their Self Perceptions of Abroad and at Home, Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, Georgia State University.
Charles, C., 2012, Skin Bleaching: The Complexion of Identity Beauty, and Fashion. The Meaning of Dress, SSRN, 18 June, https://ssrn.com/abstract=2372176.
Chin, E., 2015, Commodity Racism, in The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Consumption and Consumer Studies, https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118989463.wbeccs049.
Craig, M., 2002, Ain’t I a Beauty Queen: Blacks Women, Beauty and the Politics of Race, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Crenshaw, K., 1989, 'Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics', University of Chicago Legal Forum, Vol. 8.
Daniel, G.R., Kina, L., Dariotis, W.M., and Fojas, C., 2014, 'Emerging paradigms in critical mixed race studies, Journal of Critical Mixed Race Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1.
Darkwah, A., and Adomako Ampofo, A., 2008, 'Race, Gender and Global Love: Non-Ghanaian Wives, Insiders or Outsiders in Ghana?' International Journal of Sociology of the Family, Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 187–208.
Dione Rosado, S., 2003, 'No Nubian knots or nappy locks: Discussing the politics of hair among women of African descent in the diaspora. A report on research in progress', Transforming Anthropology, Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 6–63.
Dosekun, S., 2020, Fashioning postfeminism: Spectacular femininity and transnational culture, Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press.
Ellis-Hervey, N., Doss, A., Davis, D., Nicks, R., and Araisa, P., 2016, 'African American Personal Presentation: Psychology of Hair and Self-Perception', Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 47, No. 8, pp. 869–882.
Erasmus, Z., 1997, ‘Oe! My Hare Gaan Huistoe’: Hairstyling as Black Cultural Practice', Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity, Vol. 32, pp. 11–16.
Fanon, F., 2008, Black skin, white masks, New York: Grove Press.
Freeman, M., 1993, Rewriting the self: History, Memory, Narrative, New York: Routledge. Gonzalez-Sobrino, B., and Goss, D.R., 2019, Exploring the mechanisms of racialisation beyond the black–white binary, Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 42, No. 4, pp. 505–510, DOI: 10.1080/01419870.2018.1444781.
Hall, S., 2007, It’s time for foundation, in Sims, J. M., ed., Mixed heritage: identity, policy and practice, London, UK: Runnymede Trust, pp. 24–25.
Haritaworn, J., 2009, 'Hybrid Border-Crossers? Towards a Radical Socialisation of ‘Mixed Race’’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 115–132.
Hirsch, A., 2019, Brit(ish): On Race, Identity and Belonging, New York: Vintage Publishers.
Ho, C.G.Y., 2012, Living in liminality: Chinese migrancy in Ghana, PhD dissertation for University of California, Santa Cruz.
Hochman, A., 2019, Racialization: a defense of the concept, Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 42, No. 8, pp. 1245–1262, DOI: 10.1080/01419870.2018.1527937.
Hunter, M., 2007, The Persistent Problem of Colourism: Skin Tone, Status and Inequality, Sociology Compass, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 237–254.
Johnson, T.A., and Bankhead, T., 2014, ‘Hair it is’: Examining the Experience of Black Women with Natural Hair', Open Journal of Social Sciences Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 86–100.
Joseph-Salisbury, R., and Connelly, L.J., 2018, ‘If your hair is relaxed, white people are relaxed, if your hair is nappy, they are not happy’: Black hair as a site of ‘post- racial’ social control in English Schools, Social Sciences, Vol. 7, No. 11, p. 219.
Lever, J.T., 1970, 'Mulatto Influence on the Gold Coast in the Early Nineteenth Century: Jan Nieser of Elmina', African Historical Studies, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 253–261, doi:10.2307/216216.
Madlela, K., 2018, Black Hair Politics: The Representation of African Women in True Love Magazine Front Covers and Hair Advertisements, PhD thesis, Department of Visual Arts, Faculty of Humanities, University of Pretoria.
Mahtani, M., and Moreno, A., 2001, 'Same Difference: Towards a More Unified Discourse in ‘Mixed Race Theory’’, in Parker, D. and Song, M., eds, Rethinking ‘Mixed Race’, London, UK: Pluto Books, pp. 65–75.
Mercer, K., 1987, 'Black Hair/Style Politics', New Formations, No. 3, pp. 33–54.
Miles, M.B., Huberman, A.M., and Saldana, J., 2013, Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook, 3rd ed, Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Nyamnjoh, F., and Fuh, D., 2014, 'Africans Consuming Hair, Africans Consumed by Hair', Africa Insight, Vol. 44, No. 1, pp. 52–68.
Netshia, S., 2017, The Power of Hair: The Politics of Hair in a (South) African Context, http://ipip-project.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/The-power-of-Hair.pdf, accessed 9 December 2021.
Omi, M., and Winant, H., 1994, Racial Formation in the US: From the 1960s to the 1990s, New York: Routledge.
Paragg, J., 2015, ‘‘Canadian-first’: Mixed race self-identification and Canadian belonging’, Canadian Ethnic Studies, Vol. 47, No. 2, pp. 21–44.
Paragg, J., 2017, ‘‘What are you’: Mixed-Race Responses to the Racial Gaze’, Ethnicities, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 277–298.Patton, T.O., 2006, African American women and their struggles with beauty, body image, and hair, National Women’s Studies Association Journal, Vol. 18, pp. 24–51, doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2354.2006.00387.
Phoenix, A., 2014, 'Colourism and the politics of beauty', Feminist Review, Vol. 108, pp. 97–105.
Pierre, J., 2008, ‘‘I Like Your Colour!’ Skin bleaching and geographies of race in urban Ghana’, Feminist Review, Vol. 90, pp. 9–29.
Pierre, J., 2013, The Predicament of Blackness: Postcolonial Ghana and the Politics of Race, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Rocha, Z.L. and Yeoh, B.S., 2021, Hierarchies of mixedness: Hybridity, mixed-race racisms and belonging for Eurasians in Singapore, Ethnic and Racial Studies, https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2021.1921235.
Senghor, L.S., 1966, 'Negritude: A humanism of the twentieth century', in Grinker, R.R., Lubkemann, S.C. and Steiner, C.B., eds, 2010, Perspectives on Africa: A reader in culture, history and representation, Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 629–636.
Storrs, D., 1999, 'Whiteness as stigma: Essentialist identity work by mixed-race women', Symbolic Interaction, Vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 187–212.
Thomas, T., 2013, ‘‘Hair’ They Are: The Ideologies of Black Hair’, The York Review, Vol. 9, No. 1.
Thompson, C., 2009, 'Black women, beauty, and hair as a matter of being', Women’s Studies: An Inter-Disciplinary Journal, Vol. 38, No. 8, pp. 831–856.
Van Zyl-Hermann, D., and Boersema, J., 2017, 'Introduction: the politics of whiteness in Africa', Africa, Vol. 87, No. 4, pp. 651–661.
Varro, G., 2008, 'Mettre la mixité à la place de l’origine', in Collet, B., and Philippe, C., eds, Mixités. Variations autour d’une notion transversale, Paris: L’Harmattan, pp. 201–218.
White, S.B., 2005, ‘Releasing the Pursuit of ‘Bouncin and Behavin’ Hair: Natural Hair a an Afrocentric Feminist Aesthetic for Beauty’, International Journal of Media and Culture, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 295–308.