2 - Weakened States and Market Giants: Neoliberalism and Democracy in Niger and West Bengal
Corresponding Author(s) : Rahmane Idrissa
Africa Development,
Vol. 43 No. 3 (2018): Africa Development
Abstract
This article argues that the contemporaneous phenomana of the ‘third wave of democratisations’ and the ‘second wave of liberalisations’ – or neoliberalism as it were – has disrupted the promise of democracy in the Global South. While the mainstream literature considers that democracy and the promotion of open market economies are mutually reinforcing, I claim that they in fact clash around the roles of the state, which both democracy and neoliberalism seek to reform, but in opposite directions. Democracy requires a broadened and responsive state system, mediating between social classes, while neoliberal reform typically shrinks the state system and shapes it to the preferences of elite classes. In this article, this thesis is explored in historical and comparative ways. I build an analytical framework through a comparison between the Bolivian National Revolution of 1952 and the democratic reforms undertaken under Evo Morales. Using this tool, I compare the fraught relations of Niger with French nuclear giant Areva and those of West Bengal with Indian industrial giant Tata. These comparisons, developed following descriptions of historical backgrounds, show why the vexed issue of the reform of the state should constitute a central research agenda if we are to grasp the fundamental conditions of the prospects of democracy in the Global South today.
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- Ananth, K., 2010, India since Independence, New Delhi: Pearson Education India.
- Arze, C. and Kruse, T., 2004, ‘The Consequences of Neoliberal Reform’, NACLA Report on the Americas, November–December, pp. 23–28.
- Bandhyopadhyay, T., and Dinda, S., 2013, Neo-Liberalism and Protest in West Bengal: An Analysis through the Media lens, Munich Personal RePEc Archive Paper, May.
- Baumik, S., 2011, ‘The Singur controversy: a causal analysis’, 16 April, http://www.mightylaws.in/450/singur-controversy-causal-analysis.
- Beckman, B., 1991, ‘Empowerment or repression: the World Bank and the politics of African adjustment’, African Development 16 (1): 45–72.
- Constitution de la 7ème République, Niger.
- Corbridge, S., Harriss, J. and Jeffrey, C., 2013, India Today: Economy, Politics and Society, Cambridge: Polity Press.
- Cunha Filio, C.M., Gonçalves, R.S. and Dalla Déa, A., 2010, ‘The National Development Plan as a political economy strategy in Morales’s Bolivia: accomplishments and limitations’, Latin American Perspectives 37 (4): 177–96.
- Diamond, L., Linz, J.J. and Lipset, S.M., 1989, Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publisher.
- Farthing, L., 2010, ‘Controlling state power: an interview with Vice-President Álvaro García Linera’, Latin American Perspectives 37 (4): 30–3.
- García Linera, Á., 2006, ‘State Crisis and Popular Power’, New Left Review 37: 73–85.
- García Linera, Á and Ortega Breña, M., 2010, ‘The state in transition: power bloc and point of bifurcation’, Latin American Perspectives 37 (4): 34–47.
- Gervais, M., 1992, ‘Les enjeux politiques des ajustements structurels au Niger’, Canadian Journal of African Studies/Revue Canadienne des Etudes Africaines 26 (2): 226–49.
- Gervais, M., 1995, ‘Structural adjustment in Niger: implementations, effects and determining political factors’, Review of African Political Economy 22 (63): 27–42.
- Gervais, M., 1997, ‘Niger: regime change, economic crisis and perpetuation of privilege’, in J.F. Clark and D.E. Gardinier, eds, Political Reform in Francophone Africa, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
- Haarstad, H. and Andersson, V., 2009, ‘Backlash reconsidered: neoliberalism and popular mobilization in Bolivia’, Latin American Politics and Society 51 (4): 1–28.
- Huntington, S., 1991, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century, Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
- ‘K.B.’, 1985, ‘Indira Gandhi: an attempt at a political appraisal’, Economic and Political Weekly 20 (12).
- Kaup, B., 2010, ‘A neoliberal nationalization? The constraints on natural-gas-led- development in Bolivia’, Latin American Perspective 37 (3): 123–38.
- Klein, H.S., 2011, A Concise History of Bolivia, 2nd edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Kohl, B. and Farthing, L., 2009, ‘“Less than fully satisfactory development outcomes”: international financial institutions and social unrest in Bolivia’, Latin American Perspectives 36 (3): 59–78.
- Kohl, B., 2010, ‘Bolivia under Morales: a work in progress’, Latin American Perspectives 37 (3): 107–22.
- Kohli, A., 2006, ‘Politics of economic growth in India, 1980–2005: part II: the 1990s and beyond’, Economic and Political Weekly 41 (14): 1361–70.
- Kumar, P., 2012, ‘Tata Nano: a study on business challenges in India’, The Vagabond, 8 January, http://piyusharunkumar.wordpress.com/2012/01/08/tata-nano-a-study-on-business-challenges-in-india/.
- La Roue de l’Histoire, 2014, ‘Affaire des 400 milliards: les divagations de Tandja’, 5 February, http://www.nigerdiaspora.eu/index.php/les-infos-du-pays/politique-niger/politique-niger/item/66331-affaire-des-400-milliards-les-divagations-de-tandja.
- Kozicki, R.J., 1975, ‘The demise of Indian democracy’, Asian Affairs 2 (6): 349–62. Kurien, C.T., 1989, ‘Indian economy in the 1980s and on to the 1990s’, Economic and Political Weekly 24 (15).
- Leon, T., 2010, ‘The State of Liberal Democracy in Africa: Resurgence or Retreat?’, Paper for the Cato Institute’s Center for Global Liberty and Prosperity."
- Maddison, A., 2006 [1971], Class Structure and Economic Growth: India and Pakistan since the Moghuls, Abingdon: Routledge.
- Malloy, J.M., 1970, Bolivia: The Uncompleted Revolution, Pittsburgh, PA: Pittsburgh University Press.
- Mansingh, S., 2006, Historical Dictionary of India, 2nd edition, Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.
- Milliband, R., 2009 [1969], The State in Capitalist Society, Pontypool, Torfaen: Merlin Press. Mkandawire, T., 2009, ‘Institutional Monocropping and Monotasking in Africa’, Paper No. 1 of UNRISD Governance, Social Policy and Development Programme.
- Parti Nigérien pour la Démocratie et le Socialisme (PNDS), 2011, Niger: La Renaissance.
- Programme PNDS Tarayya.
- Petras, J., 2013, ‘The most radical conservative regime: Bolivia under Evo Morales’, GlobalResearch, 31December, http://www.globalresearch.ca/the-most-radical-conservative-regime-bolivia-under-evo-morales/5363248.
- Raynaut, C., 1999, ‘Trente ans d’indépendance: repères et tendances’, Politique Africaine 38, ‘Le Niger, chroniques d’un Etat’, pp. 3–29.
- Regalsky, P. and Ortega Breña, M., 2010, ‘Political processes and the reconfiguration of the state in Bolivia’, Latin American Perspectives 37 (3): 35–50.
- Roy, D., 2011, ‘Gujarat’s Gain and Bengal’s Loss? “Development”, Land Acquisition in India and the Tata Nano Project: A Comparison of Singur with Sanand’, Paper presented at the International Conference on Global Land Grabbing, 6–8 April, University of Sussex.
- Solo, 1978, ‘The neo-Marxist theory of the state’, Journal of Economic Issues 12 (4): 829–42. Sud, N., 2007, ‘From land to the tiller to land liberalisation: the political economy of Gujarat’s shifting land policy’, Modern Asian Studies 41 (3): 603–37.
- Sud, N., 2008, ‘The Nano and good governance in Gujarat’, Economic and Political Weekly 43 (50): 13–14.
- The Free Library/South American Political and Economic Affairs, 2004, http://www.thefreelibrary.com/BOLIVIA%3A+PRESIDENT+CARLOS+MESA+GETS+%22YES%22+VOTE+ON+GAS+REFERENDUM.-a0119912742, 30 July.
- Van Walraven, K., 2013, The Yearning for Relief: A History of the Sawaba Movement in Niger, Leiden: Brill.
- Webber, J., 2011, From Rebellion to Reform in Bolivia: Class Struggle, Indigenous Liberation, and the Politics of Evo Morales, Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books.
- Wolf, J., 2013, ‘Towards post-liberal democracy in Latin America? A conceptual framework applied to Bolivia’, Journal of Latin American Studies 45 (1): 31–59.
References
Ananth, K., 2010, India since Independence, New Delhi: Pearson Education India.
Arze, C. and Kruse, T., 2004, ‘The Consequences of Neoliberal Reform’, NACLA Report on the Americas, November–December, pp. 23–28.
Bandhyopadhyay, T., and Dinda, S., 2013, Neo-Liberalism and Protest in West Bengal: An Analysis through the Media lens, Munich Personal RePEc Archive Paper, May.
Baumik, S., 2011, ‘The Singur controversy: a causal analysis’, 16 April, http://www.mightylaws.in/450/singur-controversy-causal-analysis.
Beckman, B., 1991, ‘Empowerment or repression: the World Bank and the politics of African adjustment’, African Development 16 (1): 45–72.
Constitution de la 7ème République, Niger.
Corbridge, S., Harriss, J. and Jeffrey, C., 2013, India Today: Economy, Politics and Society, Cambridge: Polity Press.
Cunha Filio, C.M., Gonçalves, R.S. and Dalla Déa, A., 2010, ‘The National Development Plan as a political economy strategy in Morales’s Bolivia: accomplishments and limitations’, Latin American Perspectives 37 (4): 177–96.
Diamond, L., Linz, J.J. and Lipset, S.M., 1989, Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publisher.
Farthing, L., 2010, ‘Controlling state power: an interview with Vice-President Álvaro García Linera’, Latin American Perspectives 37 (4): 30–3.
García Linera, Á., 2006, ‘State Crisis and Popular Power’, New Left Review 37: 73–85.
García Linera, Á and Ortega Breña, M., 2010, ‘The state in transition: power bloc and point of bifurcation’, Latin American Perspectives 37 (4): 34–47.
Gervais, M., 1992, ‘Les enjeux politiques des ajustements structurels au Niger’, Canadian Journal of African Studies/Revue Canadienne des Etudes Africaines 26 (2): 226–49.
Gervais, M., 1995, ‘Structural adjustment in Niger: implementations, effects and determining political factors’, Review of African Political Economy 22 (63): 27–42.
Gervais, M., 1997, ‘Niger: regime change, economic crisis and perpetuation of privilege’, in J.F. Clark and D.E. Gardinier, eds, Political Reform in Francophone Africa, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Haarstad, H. and Andersson, V., 2009, ‘Backlash reconsidered: neoliberalism and popular mobilization in Bolivia’, Latin American Politics and Society 51 (4): 1–28.
Huntington, S., 1991, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century, Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
‘K.B.’, 1985, ‘Indira Gandhi: an attempt at a political appraisal’, Economic and Political Weekly 20 (12).
Kaup, B., 2010, ‘A neoliberal nationalization? The constraints on natural-gas-led- development in Bolivia’, Latin American Perspective 37 (3): 123–38.
Klein, H.S., 2011, A Concise History of Bolivia, 2nd edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kohl, B. and Farthing, L., 2009, ‘“Less than fully satisfactory development outcomes”: international financial institutions and social unrest in Bolivia’, Latin American Perspectives 36 (3): 59–78.
Kohl, B., 2010, ‘Bolivia under Morales: a work in progress’, Latin American Perspectives 37 (3): 107–22.
Kohli, A., 2006, ‘Politics of economic growth in India, 1980–2005: part II: the 1990s and beyond’, Economic and Political Weekly 41 (14): 1361–70.
Kumar, P., 2012, ‘Tata Nano: a study on business challenges in India’, The Vagabond, 8 January, http://piyusharunkumar.wordpress.com/2012/01/08/tata-nano-a-study-on-business-challenges-in-india/.
La Roue de l’Histoire, 2014, ‘Affaire des 400 milliards: les divagations de Tandja’, 5 February, http://www.nigerdiaspora.eu/index.php/les-infos-du-pays/politique-niger/politique-niger/item/66331-affaire-des-400-milliards-les-divagations-de-tandja.
Kozicki, R.J., 1975, ‘The demise of Indian democracy’, Asian Affairs 2 (6): 349–62. Kurien, C.T., 1989, ‘Indian economy in the 1980s and on to the 1990s’, Economic and Political Weekly 24 (15).
Leon, T., 2010, ‘The State of Liberal Democracy in Africa: Resurgence or Retreat?’, Paper for the Cato Institute’s Center for Global Liberty and Prosperity."
Maddison, A., 2006 [1971], Class Structure and Economic Growth: India and Pakistan since the Moghuls, Abingdon: Routledge.
Malloy, J.M., 1970, Bolivia: The Uncompleted Revolution, Pittsburgh, PA: Pittsburgh University Press.
Mansingh, S., 2006, Historical Dictionary of India, 2nd edition, Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.
Milliband, R., 2009 [1969], The State in Capitalist Society, Pontypool, Torfaen: Merlin Press. Mkandawire, T., 2009, ‘Institutional Monocropping and Monotasking in Africa’, Paper No. 1 of UNRISD Governance, Social Policy and Development Programme.
Parti Nigérien pour la Démocratie et le Socialisme (PNDS), 2011, Niger: La Renaissance.
Programme PNDS Tarayya.
Petras, J., 2013, ‘The most radical conservative regime: Bolivia under Evo Morales’, GlobalResearch, 31December, http://www.globalresearch.ca/the-most-radical-conservative-regime-bolivia-under-evo-morales/5363248.
Raynaut, C., 1999, ‘Trente ans d’indépendance: repères et tendances’, Politique Africaine 38, ‘Le Niger, chroniques d’un Etat’, pp. 3–29.
Regalsky, P. and Ortega Breña, M., 2010, ‘Political processes and the reconfiguration of the state in Bolivia’, Latin American Perspectives 37 (3): 35–50.
Roy, D., 2011, ‘Gujarat’s Gain and Bengal’s Loss? “Development”, Land Acquisition in India and the Tata Nano Project: A Comparison of Singur with Sanand’, Paper presented at the International Conference on Global Land Grabbing, 6–8 April, University of Sussex.
Solo, 1978, ‘The neo-Marxist theory of the state’, Journal of Economic Issues 12 (4): 829–42. Sud, N., 2007, ‘From land to the tiller to land liberalisation: the political economy of Gujarat’s shifting land policy’, Modern Asian Studies 41 (3): 603–37.
Sud, N., 2008, ‘The Nano and good governance in Gujarat’, Economic and Political Weekly 43 (50): 13–14.
The Free Library/South American Political and Economic Affairs, 2004, http://www.thefreelibrary.com/BOLIVIA%3A+PRESIDENT+CARLOS+MESA+GETS+%22YES%22+VOTE+ON+GAS+REFERENDUM.-a0119912742, 30 July.
Van Walraven, K., 2013, The Yearning for Relief: A History of the Sawaba Movement in Niger, Leiden: Brill.
Webber, J., 2011, From Rebellion to Reform in Bolivia: Class Struggle, Indigenous Liberation, and the Politics of Evo Morales, Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books.
Wolf, J., 2013, ‘Towards post-liberal democracy in Latin America? A conceptual framework applied to Bolivia’, Journal of Latin American Studies 45 (1): 31–59.