1 - Thinking otherwise: theorizing the colonial/ modern gender system in Africa.
Corresponding Author(s) : Boris Bertolt
African Sociological Review,
Vol. 22 No. 1 (2018): African Sociological Review
Abstract
This article aims to show that there is an entanglement between representations of the body and gender inequalities between the colonial period and contemporary African societies. Postcolonial Africa remains deeply marked by representations of sex, body and gender during colonization. This epistemological stance has the consequence of denying the idea of the end of decolonization, which appears at this moment as a myth. It derives theoretically from the works of the Latin American modernity / coloniality research program. Coloniality is understood as a set of paradigms of domination and regulation of the life of the colonized introduced during the construction of European hegemony around the world since the fifteenth century. Contemporary Discourses and knowledge about gender dynamics remain deeply embedded in Eurocentric thinking. To illustrate this situation, two aspects of life of former colonized seemed to me important to highlight: the inferiorization of women in Africa and gender categories. Even if it is not my point to argue that the situation of women and gays in Africa was better before contacts with Europeans, I am trying to show that the subalternization of women and homosexuals in contemporary Africa can’t be account without a deep surgery on the body of colonized people and speeches about sexuality.
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- Amadiume, Ifi. 1997. Re-Inventing Africa: Matriarchy, Religion and Culture. London and New York: Zed Books Ltd. x, 214, pp Amadiume, Ifi. 2006. Sexuality, African Religio-Cultural Traditions and Modernity: Expanding the Lens, CODESRIA Bulletin, 1–2:26–28.
- Balandier, George. 2001. “ La situation coloniale : approche théorique », Cahiers internationaux de sociologie /1 (n° 110), p. 9-29.
- Bennet, Judith. 1989. Feminism and history, Gender & History, Vol.1 No.3 Autumn 1989, pp251-272.
- Bernay, Edward. 2007. Propaganda. Comment manipuler l’opinion en démocratie, Paris, La couverte.
- Broqua, Christophe. 2012. ‘’L’émergence des minorités sexuelles dans l’espace public en Afrique ‘’ in La question Homosexuelle et transgenre, Politique africaine (126) : pp5-23.
- Callaway, Helen. 1987. Gender, Culture, Empire: European Women in Colonial Nigeria, Oxford: MacMillan Press in association with St. Anthony’s College. Cary, Joyce. 1944. The case of African freedom, London, Secker and Warburg. Chibber, Vivek. 2013. Postcolonial Theory and the Specter of Capital. London: Verso. Cloete, Stuart. 1958. Congo Song, New York, Monarch.
- Crenshaw, Kimberley. 1995. Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. In Critical race theory, ed. Kimberlé Crenshaw, neil Gotanda, Gary Peller, and Kendall Thomas. New York: The new Press.
- Crenshaw, Kimberley & McCall, Leslie. 2013. Toward a field of intersectionality studies: Theory, applications, and praxis. Signs, 38(4), 785-810.
- Crowder, Michael. 1959. Pagans and Politicians, London, Hutchinson, 224 p. Diop, Cheik Anta. (1987). L’Afrique noire précoloniale. Etude comparée des systèmes politiques et
- sociaux de l’Europe et de l’Afrique Noire, de l’Antiquité à la formation des Etats modernes, 2e édition, Pris, Presence Africaine.
- Dussel, Eric. 2000. Europe, Modernity, and Eurocentrism. In Nepantla. Views from South, I, 3, pp.465-478.
- Epprecht, Marc. 2010. “The Making of African Sexuality: Early Sources, CurrentDebates”. In History Compass 8, 768-779.
- Escobar, Arturo. 2007. ‘’ Worlds and knowledges otherwise : The Latin American Modernity/coloniality research program’’, in Cultural Studies, 21 (2/3) (March/ May) : 197-210.
- Fanon, Frantz. 1952. Peau noire, masque blanc, Paris, Seuil.
- Fanon, Frantz. 1961. The wretched of the Earth. New York : Grove Press. Foucault, Michel.1976.Histoire de la sexualité, Paris, Gallimard.
- Gunn Allen, Paula. 1986. The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian Traditions.Boston: Beacon Press.
- Goody, Jack. 2006. The theft of history. Cambridge/New York. Cambridg University press. Grosfogel,Ramon. 2011. Decolonizing Post-Colonial Studies and Paradigms of Political Economy: Transmodernity, Decolonial Thinking, and Global Coloniality in Transmodernity: Journal of Peripheral Cultural Production of the Luso-Hispanic World, vol 1. Hooks, Bell. 1981. Ain’t I a Woman, Black women and feminism. Boston, MA: South End Press. Chicago.
- Hoad, Neville.2007. African Intimacies: Race, Homosexuality, and Globalization. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.
- Iman, Ayesha (Al). 2006. Sexe, genre et société. Engendrer les sciences sociales africaines. s, Karthala.
- Kisiang’ani, Edward. 2004. ‘’Decolonising gender studies in Africa’’. African Gender Scholarship: Concepts, Methodologies and Paradigms. (Eds). Bibi Bakari Edward Kisiangani et al., Dakar: CODESRIA. 24-36.
- Lugones, Maria. 2007. Heterosexualism in the Colonial/modern Gender system Hypatia, vol 22 no 1.
- Lugones, Maria. 2010. The ‘Coloniality of Gender’’ in Gender Equity Work & Public https://globalstudies.trinity.duke.edu/wpcontent/themes/cgsh/materials/WKO/v2d2_Lugones.pdf
- Lugones, Maria. 2011. ‘Toward a Decolonial Feminism’, Hypatia 25(4), pp 742–759, p 742.
- Maldonado-Torres, Nelson. 2007. ‘’On the coloniality of being, Contributions to the development of a concept’’, Cultural Studies, Volume 21, pp240-270.
- Martinot, S. n. d. ‘The Coloniality of Power: Notes Towards De-Colonization.’ Unpublished Paper, San Francisco State University.
- Mbembe, Achille. 2007. ‘’De la scène coloniale chez Frantz Fanon ‘’, Rue Descartes 2007/4 (n° 58), p. 37-55.
- Mbembe Achille. 2014. Sortir de la grande nuit. Essai sur l’Afrique décolonisée, Paris, La Découverte, 2010.
- Mbembe Achille. 2013. Critique de la raison nègre, Paris, Decouverte.
- Mendoza, Breny. 2016. ‘’Coloniality of Gender and Power: From Postcoloniality to Decoloniality’’ in Oxford Handbook of feminist theory, Oxford University press, pp100-122.
- McClintock, Anne. 1995. Imperial leather. Race, gender and sexuality in the colonial contest, New York, Routledge.
- Mignolo, Walter. 1995. The Darker Side of the Renaissance: Literacy, Territoriality and Colonization. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.
- Mignolo,Walter. 2000. Local Histories/Global Designs: Essays on the Coloniality of Power, Subaltern Knowledges and Border Thinking. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
- Mohanty, Chandra T. 1991. “Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses.” In Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism, 51-80. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
- Ndlovu-Gatsheni. 2013. Empire, Global Coloniality and African Subjectivity, New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books.
- Nandy, Ashis. 1988. The intimate enemy, Delhi, Oxford University Press.
- Oyewùmí, oyéronké. 1997. The invention of women: Making an African sense of Western gender discourses. Minneapolis: university of Minnesota Press.
- Quijano, Aníbal. (2002). Coloniality of power and Eurocentrism in Latin America. International Sociology, vol. 15 no. 2, pp. 15-232. DOI/0268580900015002005
- Quijano, Aníbal. 2007. “ Race » et colonialité du pouvoir », Mouvements, vol. 51, no. 3, 2007, pp.111-118.
- Rich, Adrienne. (1976). Of Woman Born, UK edition by Virago, London.
- Spivak, Gayatry. 1990. The postcolonial critic. Interviews, Strategies and Dialogue, New York, Rouledge.
- Steen, Marguirite. 1941. The Sun is my undergoing, New-York: Vicking Press.
- Stoler, Anne. 1995. Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault’s History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things, Sales/Territorial, 226p.
- Teunis, Niels. 1996.“Homosexuality in Dakar : Is the bed the heart of a sexual subculture? ” in Journal of gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Identity 1(2) : 153-170.
- Segato, Rita.2001. The factor of gender in the Yoruba transnational religious world. http://dan.unb.br/im ages/doc/Serie289empdf.pdf
- Vatin François. (2011). “ Octave Mannoni (1899-1989) et sa Psychologie de la colonisation. Contextualisation etdécontextualisation » ,Revue du MAUSS, /1, p. 123-164.
References
Amadiume, Ifi. 1997. Re-Inventing Africa: Matriarchy, Religion and Culture. London and New York: Zed Books Ltd. x, 214, pp Amadiume, Ifi. 2006. Sexuality, African Religio-Cultural Traditions and Modernity: Expanding the Lens, CODESRIA Bulletin, 1–2:26–28.
Balandier, George. 2001. “ La situation coloniale : approche théorique », Cahiers internationaux de sociologie /1 (n° 110), p. 9-29.
Bennet, Judith. 1989. Feminism and history, Gender & History, Vol.1 No.3 Autumn 1989, pp251-272.
Bernay, Edward. 2007. Propaganda. Comment manipuler l’opinion en démocratie, Paris, La couverte.
Broqua, Christophe. 2012. ‘’L’émergence des minorités sexuelles dans l’espace public en Afrique ‘’ in La question Homosexuelle et transgenre, Politique africaine (126) : pp5-23.
Callaway, Helen. 1987. Gender, Culture, Empire: European Women in Colonial Nigeria, Oxford: MacMillan Press in association with St. Anthony’s College. Cary, Joyce. 1944. The case of African freedom, London, Secker and Warburg. Chibber, Vivek. 2013. Postcolonial Theory and the Specter of Capital. London: Verso. Cloete, Stuart. 1958. Congo Song, New York, Monarch.
Crenshaw, Kimberley. 1995. Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. In Critical race theory, ed. Kimberlé Crenshaw, neil Gotanda, Gary Peller, and Kendall Thomas. New York: The new Press.
Crenshaw, Kimberley & McCall, Leslie. 2013. Toward a field of intersectionality studies: Theory, applications, and praxis. Signs, 38(4), 785-810.
Crowder, Michael. 1959. Pagans and Politicians, London, Hutchinson, 224 p. Diop, Cheik Anta. (1987). L’Afrique noire précoloniale. Etude comparée des systèmes politiques et
sociaux de l’Europe et de l’Afrique Noire, de l’Antiquité à la formation des Etats modernes, 2e édition, Pris, Presence Africaine.
Dussel, Eric. 2000. Europe, Modernity, and Eurocentrism. In Nepantla. Views from South, I, 3, pp.465-478.
Epprecht, Marc. 2010. “The Making of African Sexuality: Early Sources, CurrentDebates”. In History Compass 8, 768-779.
Escobar, Arturo. 2007. ‘’ Worlds and knowledges otherwise : The Latin American Modernity/coloniality research program’’, in Cultural Studies, 21 (2/3) (March/ May) : 197-210.
Fanon, Frantz. 1952. Peau noire, masque blanc, Paris, Seuil.
Fanon, Frantz. 1961. The wretched of the Earth. New York : Grove Press. Foucault, Michel.1976.Histoire de la sexualité, Paris, Gallimard.
Gunn Allen, Paula. 1986. The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian Traditions.Boston: Beacon Press.
Goody, Jack. 2006. The theft of history. Cambridge/New York. Cambridg University press. Grosfogel,Ramon. 2011. Decolonizing Post-Colonial Studies and Paradigms of Political Economy: Transmodernity, Decolonial Thinking, and Global Coloniality in Transmodernity: Journal of Peripheral Cultural Production of the Luso-Hispanic World, vol 1. Hooks, Bell. 1981. Ain’t I a Woman, Black women and feminism. Boston, MA: South End Press. Chicago.
Hoad, Neville.2007. African Intimacies: Race, Homosexuality, and Globalization. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.
Iman, Ayesha (Al). 2006. Sexe, genre et société. Engendrer les sciences sociales africaines. s, Karthala.
Kisiang’ani, Edward. 2004. ‘’Decolonising gender studies in Africa’’. African Gender Scholarship: Concepts, Methodologies and Paradigms. (Eds). Bibi Bakari Edward Kisiangani et al., Dakar: CODESRIA. 24-36.
Lugones, Maria. 2007. Heterosexualism in the Colonial/modern Gender system Hypatia, vol 22 no 1.
Lugones, Maria. 2010. The ‘Coloniality of Gender’’ in Gender Equity Work & Public https://globalstudies.trinity.duke.edu/wpcontent/themes/cgsh/materials/WKO/v2d2_Lugones.pdf
Lugones, Maria. 2011. ‘Toward a Decolonial Feminism’, Hypatia 25(4), pp 742–759, p 742.
Maldonado-Torres, Nelson. 2007. ‘’On the coloniality of being, Contributions to the development of a concept’’, Cultural Studies, Volume 21, pp240-270.
Martinot, S. n. d. ‘The Coloniality of Power: Notes Towards De-Colonization.’ Unpublished Paper, San Francisco State University.
Mbembe, Achille. 2007. ‘’De la scène coloniale chez Frantz Fanon ‘’, Rue Descartes 2007/4 (n° 58), p. 37-55.
Mbembe Achille. 2014. Sortir de la grande nuit. Essai sur l’Afrique décolonisée, Paris, La Découverte, 2010.
Mbembe Achille. 2013. Critique de la raison nègre, Paris, Decouverte.
Mendoza, Breny. 2016. ‘’Coloniality of Gender and Power: From Postcoloniality to Decoloniality’’ in Oxford Handbook of feminist theory, Oxford University press, pp100-122.
McClintock, Anne. 1995. Imperial leather. Race, gender and sexuality in the colonial contest, New York, Routledge.
Mignolo, Walter. 1995. The Darker Side of the Renaissance: Literacy, Territoriality and Colonization. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.
Mignolo,Walter. 2000. Local Histories/Global Designs: Essays on the Coloniality of Power, Subaltern Knowledges and Border Thinking. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Mohanty, Chandra T. 1991. “Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses.” In Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism, 51-80. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Ndlovu-Gatsheni. 2013. Empire, Global Coloniality and African Subjectivity, New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books.
Nandy, Ashis. 1988. The intimate enemy, Delhi, Oxford University Press.
Oyewùmí, oyéronké. 1997. The invention of women: Making an African sense of Western gender discourses. Minneapolis: university of Minnesota Press.
Quijano, Aníbal. (2002). Coloniality of power and Eurocentrism in Latin America. International Sociology, vol. 15 no. 2, pp. 15-232. DOI/0268580900015002005
Quijano, Aníbal. 2007. “ Race » et colonialité du pouvoir », Mouvements, vol. 51, no. 3, 2007, pp.111-118.
Rich, Adrienne. (1976). Of Woman Born, UK edition by Virago, London.
Spivak, Gayatry. 1990. The postcolonial critic. Interviews, Strategies and Dialogue, New York, Rouledge.
Steen, Marguirite. 1941. The Sun is my undergoing, New-York: Vicking Press.
Stoler, Anne. 1995. Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault’s History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things, Sales/Territorial, 226p.
Teunis, Niels. 1996.“Homosexuality in Dakar : Is the bed the heart of a sexual subculture? ” in Journal of gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Identity 1(2) : 153-170.
Segato, Rita.2001. The factor of gender in the Yoruba transnational religious world. http://dan.unb.br/im ages/doc/Serie289empdf.pdf
Vatin François. (2011). “ Octave Mannoni (1899-1989) et sa Psychologie de la colonisation. Contextualisation etdécontextualisation » ,Revue du MAUSS, /1, p. 123-164.