1 - Income Distribution and Inequality: gender, labour market status and macro-economic policy
African Sociological Review,
Vol. 4 No. 1 (2000): African Sociological Review
Abstract
This paper examines the impacts of gender and labour market status on income distribution and inequality. This is against the background of the macroeconomic policy instruments deployed since 1982 in Nigeria. The study is based on data from a sample survey of 473 households (with 2,412 members) drawn from the urban, semi-urban, and rural areas in southwestern Nigeria. The study shows a complex relationship between the key variables. The relationship between gender and the size distribu tion of personal or per capita household income is statistically signifi cant. However, among heads of household, the relationship is not significant. Income inequality is more pronounced amongfemale-headed households. Labour market status also yields a complex picture. The relationship between labour market status and the size distribution of income (personal and per capita income) is significant. Households whose heads are in wage employment are worse off than those with heads in self-employment. When gender is loaded, labour market status remains statistically significant for the size distribution of income. Income inequality has worsened under adjustment; but at a much deeper rate than some other studies suggest. Urban inequality is deeper than is gen erally acknowledged, and those in wage employment are particularly hard hit, while owners of capital have done quite well. Finally, while vulnerability among women in low pay has increased, the income inequality is as much a function of class as it is of gender.
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- Aboyade, 0., 1973, Incomes Profile: an Inaugural Lecture, (Thursday, 3 May) lbadan University Press, Ibadan.
- Aboyade 0., 1983, Integrated Economics: a study of developing economies, Addi son-Wesley Publishers, London.
- Adelman, Irma and Sherman Robinson, 1989, 'Income Distribution and Develop ment', in H. Chenery and T.N.Srinivasan (eds.).
- Adesina, J., 1991, 'Critique and Anti-critique in the "Governance in Africa" Debate', Codesria Bulletin, No.3.
- Adesina, J., 1992, Labour movements and policy-making in Africa, Codesria Working Paper No. l, Dakar.
- Adesina, J., 1994a, Labour in the explanation of an African Crisis. Codesria Book Se ries, London.
- Adesina, J., 1994b, 'Unions, Workers and the Development Process: controversy, di lemma and new openings' in Himmelstrand U., et al. (eds.), African Perspectives on Development. St. Martin's
- Press, New York.
- Adesina, J. (with Wale 0gunkola and Bayo Aromolaran), 1996, Poverty and Labour Market Status: a case study of South-western Nigeria. Research Report. Ibadan: NISER/SSCN/IDRC.
- Adesina, J., 1997, 'Structural Adjustment and the Transformation of Labour Identities: what's new and does it matter?' in M.A. Jega (ed.), The Transformation of Popular Identities under Acijustment, NAI, Uppsala (forthcoming).
- Aigbokhan, Ben E., 1997, 'Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria: some macroeconomic is sues,' in NES, Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria: selected papers for the 1997 Annual Conference, NES, Ibadan.
- Anyanwu, J.C., 1997, 'Poverty in Nigeria: concepts, measurements and determinants' in NES, 1997.
- Babinec, T. and Mehta, C., 1995, 'Exploring exact statistics', Keywords Number 58. Baran, Paul, 1957, The Political Economy of Growth, Monthly Review Press, New York.
- Bardham, Pranad, 1995, 'Research on Poverty and Development Twenty Years after Redistribution with Growth', in Bruno, M. and Pleskovic, B. (eds.).
- Bates, Robert, 1981, Markets and States in Tropical Africa, University of California Press, Berkeley.
- Bienefeld, M.A., 1986, 'Analysing the Politics of African State Policy: Some Thoughts on Robert Bates' Work', JDS Bulletin, Vol. 17, No. I.
- Bruno, M. and Pleskovic, B. (eds.) Annual World Bank Conference on Development Economics 1995, World Bank, Washington DC.
- Chenery H. and T.N. Srinivasan (eds.) 1989, Handbook of Development Economics, Volume II, Elsevier Science Publishers, BV.
- Chenery, Hollis; Montek S. Ahuwalia; Clive Bell; John H. Duloy, and Richard Jolly, 1974, Redistribution with Growth, Oxford University Press, New York.
- Corbridge, S., 1982,'Urban Bias, Rural Bias, and Industrialisation' in J. Hariss (ed.). Denzer, LaRay, 1998, The Iyalode in Ibadan Politics and Society, c.1850-1997, African Humanities Monographs No.7, Humanities Research Centre, Ibadan, Nigeria.
- Ekpo, Akpan H., 1995, 'Introduction', in NES 1996.
- Elson, Diane, 1994, 'People, Development and International Financial Institutions: an Interpretation of the Bretton Woods System', Review of African Political Econ omy, No. 62.
- Federal Office of Statistics, 1996, The Nigerian Household: 1995. FOS, Lagos. Fishlow, Albert, 1995, 'Inequality, Poverty and Growth: where do we stand?' in Bruno, M. and Pleskovic, B. (eds.).
- Garba, Abdul-Ganiyu, 1996, 'What can we learn from Nigeria's Experience with the World Bank's Adjustment with Growth Programme', in NES 1996.
- Gamer, T.I., 1993, 'Consumer Expenditures and Inequality: an analysis based on de composition of the Gini Coefficient', The Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. LXXV, No. l (Feb.).
- Gaudier, Maryse, Pauvretes, inegalites, exclusions: renouveau des approacjes theoriques et des pratiques sociales (Poverty, inequality and exclusion: new ap proaches to theory and practice), Institut International d' etudes sociales, Geneve.
- Hariss, J., (ed.), 1982, Rural Development: Theories of Peasant Economy and Agrar ian Change, Hutchinson, London.
- Horton, Susan; Ravi Kanbur and Dipak Mazumdar, (eds.), Labor Markets in an Era of Adjustment Volume 1: Issues Papers, EDI, World Bank, Washington DC.
- Hutcheson, Thomas L., 1996, 'Beyond Structural Adjustment: privatization options for the twenty-first century' in NES 1996.
- ILO, 1982, Rural-Urban Gap and Income Distribution: the case of Nigeria, Addis Ababa: JASPA.
- Jamal, Vali, 1995, 'Changing poverty and employment patterns under crisis in Africa', in Gerry Rodgers & R. van der Hoeven (eds.), New approaches to poverty analysis and policy Vol.III, ILO, Geneva.
- Jamal, Vali and John Weeks, 1988, 'The Vanishing Rural-Urban Gap in Sub-Saharan Africa,' International Labour Review, Vol.127, No.3.
- Kakwani, N, 1995, 'Measuring Poverty: definitions and significance of tests with ap plication to Cote d'Ivoire' in Lipton, M. and van Der Gaag, J. (eds.).
- Krugman, Paul, 1992, 'Toward a Counter-Counterrevolution in Development The ory', World Bank, Proceedings....Kuznets, S., 1955, 'Economic Growth and Income Inequality', American Economic Review 65.
References
Aboyade, 0., 1973, Incomes Profile: an Inaugural Lecture, (Thursday, 3 May) lbadan University Press, Ibadan.
Aboyade 0., 1983, Integrated Economics: a study of developing economies, Addi son-Wesley Publishers, London.
Adelman, Irma and Sherman Robinson, 1989, 'Income Distribution and Develop ment', in H. Chenery and T.N.Srinivasan (eds.).
Adesina, J., 1991, 'Critique and Anti-critique in the "Governance in Africa" Debate', Codesria Bulletin, No.3.
Adesina, J., 1992, Labour movements and policy-making in Africa, Codesria Working Paper No. l, Dakar.
Adesina, J., 1994a, Labour in the explanation of an African Crisis. Codesria Book Se ries, London.
Adesina, J., 1994b, 'Unions, Workers and the Development Process: controversy, di lemma and new openings' in Himmelstrand U., et al. (eds.), African Perspectives on Development. St. Martin's
Press, New York.
Adesina, J. (with Wale 0gunkola and Bayo Aromolaran), 1996, Poverty and Labour Market Status: a case study of South-western Nigeria. Research Report. Ibadan: NISER/SSCN/IDRC.
Adesina, J., 1997, 'Structural Adjustment and the Transformation of Labour Identities: what's new and does it matter?' in M.A. Jega (ed.), The Transformation of Popular Identities under Acijustment, NAI, Uppsala (forthcoming).
Aigbokhan, Ben E., 1997, 'Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria: some macroeconomic is sues,' in NES, Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria: selected papers for the 1997 Annual Conference, NES, Ibadan.
Anyanwu, J.C., 1997, 'Poverty in Nigeria: concepts, measurements and determinants' in NES, 1997.
Babinec, T. and Mehta, C., 1995, 'Exploring exact statistics', Keywords Number 58. Baran, Paul, 1957, The Political Economy of Growth, Monthly Review Press, New York.
Bardham, Pranad, 1995, 'Research on Poverty and Development Twenty Years after Redistribution with Growth', in Bruno, M. and Pleskovic, B. (eds.).
Bates, Robert, 1981, Markets and States in Tropical Africa, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Bienefeld, M.A., 1986, 'Analysing the Politics of African State Policy: Some Thoughts on Robert Bates' Work', JDS Bulletin, Vol. 17, No. I.
Bruno, M. and Pleskovic, B. (eds.) Annual World Bank Conference on Development Economics 1995, World Bank, Washington DC.
Chenery H. and T.N. Srinivasan (eds.) 1989, Handbook of Development Economics, Volume II, Elsevier Science Publishers, BV.
Chenery, Hollis; Montek S. Ahuwalia; Clive Bell; John H. Duloy, and Richard Jolly, 1974, Redistribution with Growth, Oxford University Press, New York.
Corbridge, S., 1982,'Urban Bias, Rural Bias, and Industrialisation' in J. Hariss (ed.). Denzer, LaRay, 1998, The Iyalode in Ibadan Politics and Society, c.1850-1997, African Humanities Monographs No.7, Humanities Research Centre, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Ekpo, Akpan H., 1995, 'Introduction', in NES 1996.
Elson, Diane, 1994, 'People, Development and International Financial Institutions: an Interpretation of the Bretton Woods System', Review of African Political Econ omy, No. 62.
Federal Office of Statistics, 1996, The Nigerian Household: 1995. FOS, Lagos. Fishlow, Albert, 1995, 'Inequality, Poverty and Growth: where do we stand?' in Bruno, M. and Pleskovic, B. (eds.).
Garba, Abdul-Ganiyu, 1996, 'What can we learn from Nigeria's Experience with the World Bank's Adjustment with Growth Programme', in NES 1996.
Gamer, T.I., 1993, 'Consumer Expenditures and Inequality: an analysis based on de composition of the Gini Coefficient', The Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. LXXV, No. l (Feb.).
Gaudier, Maryse, Pauvretes, inegalites, exclusions: renouveau des approacjes theoriques et des pratiques sociales (Poverty, inequality and exclusion: new ap proaches to theory and practice), Institut International d' etudes sociales, Geneve.
Hariss, J., (ed.), 1982, Rural Development: Theories of Peasant Economy and Agrar ian Change, Hutchinson, London.
Horton, Susan; Ravi Kanbur and Dipak Mazumdar, (eds.), Labor Markets in an Era of Adjustment Volume 1: Issues Papers, EDI, World Bank, Washington DC.
Hutcheson, Thomas L., 1996, 'Beyond Structural Adjustment: privatization options for the twenty-first century' in NES 1996.
ILO, 1982, Rural-Urban Gap and Income Distribution: the case of Nigeria, Addis Ababa: JASPA.
Jamal, Vali, 1995, 'Changing poverty and employment patterns under crisis in Africa', in Gerry Rodgers & R. van der Hoeven (eds.), New approaches to poverty analysis and policy Vol.III, ILO, Geneva.
Jamal, Vali and John Weeks, 1988, 'The Vanishing Rural-Urban Gap in Sub-Saharan Africa,' International Labour Review, Vol.127, No.3.
Kakwani, N, 1995, 'Measuring Poverty: definitions and significance of tests with ap plication to Cote d'Ivoire' in Lipton, M. and van Der Gaag, J. (eds.).
Krugman, Paul, 1992, 'Toward a Counter-Counterrevolution in Development The ory', World Bank, Proceedings....Kuznets, S., 1955, 'Economic Growth and Income Inequality', American Economic Review 65.