2 - Development, Social Citizenship and Human Rights: Re-thinking the Political Core of an Emancipatory Project in Africa
Corresponding Author(s) : Michael Neocosmos
Africa Development,
Vol. 32 No. 4 (2007): Africa Development
Abstract
The paper begins from the axiomatic point that, despite the form it eventually took, namely that of a neo-colonial process, development was understood and fought for in Africa as [part of] an emancipatory political project central to the liberatory vision of the pan-African nationalism which emerged victorious at independence. Indeed independence was always seen, by radical nationalism in particular, as only the first step towards freedom and liberation from oppres- sion, the second being economic development. Indeed ‘economism’ and ‘statism’ were mirror images of each other: it was believed that only the economy could liberate humanity and that only the state could drive the economy to progress. Today, the first proposition has been retained but the second has been dropped from hegemonic discourse. Yet the two are inseparable twins; it is in fact the case that just as the latter is false so is the former, for human emancipation is and can only be a political project. While development today is said to be guided by the (not so invisible) “hand of the market”, the state has simultaneously ‘sub- contracted’ many of its development management functions to external bodies such as NGOs. These are frequently simply new parastatals, vehicles for social entrepreneurship for a ‘new’ middle-class of development professionals. We have now a new form of state rule which forms the context for re-thinking de- velopment and politics. Central to this new form of rule is the hegemony of human rights discourse. This paper begins by reviewing the political assump- tions of the nature of citizenship underlying T.H. Marshall’s argument for ‘so- cial rights’; it provides a critique of human rights discourse and civil society from an emancipatory perspective, situating these within the new forms of im- perialism and comments on the character of political parties and social move- ments in understanding political emancipation today. It argues that in Africa, if one is to think an emancipatory project, citizenship must be conceived as active citizenship, and political subjectivity must be thought, not as management or opinions but, following the work of Badiou and Lazarus, as the freedom to think new ‘possibles’.
Keywords
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)BibTeX
- Adesina, J., 2004, ‘NEPAD and the Challenge of Africa’s Development: Towards the Political Economy of a Discourse’, Society in Transition, vol. 35, no. 1.
- Ake, C., 2003, The Feasibility of Democracy in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
- Alexander, P., 2005, ‘Globalisation and New Social Identities: A Jig-saw Puzzle from Johannesburg’, Paper presented at the University of Pretoria, Department of Sociology Seminar, May 10th.
- Althusser, L. 1971, ‘Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses’, in Althusser, L. Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, London: New Left Books.
- Altman, M., 2003, ‘The State of Employment and Unemployment in South Africa’, in Daniel, J. et al., State of the Nation: South Africa 2003-2004, Cape Town: HSRC Press.
- Amadiume, I., 1997, Reinventing Africa, London: Zed Press
- Amin, S. and Sridhar, V., 2002, ‘For Struggles, Global and National’, An interview with Samir Amin by V. Sridhar, Centre for Civil Society, University of Kwazulu- Natal (www.ukzn.ac.za/ccs/).
- Anweiler, O., 1972, Les Soviets en Russie: 1905-1921, Paris: Gallimard.
- Arendt, H., 1963, On Revolution, London: Penguin.
- Arendt, H., 1982, Lectures on Kant’s Political Philosophy, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- Assiter, A., 1999, ‘Citizenship Revisited’, in Yuval-Davis, N. and Werbner, P., Women, Citizenship and Difference, London: Zed Press.
- Badiou, A., 1982, Théorie du Sujet, Paris: Seuil.
- Badiou, A., 1985, Peut-on penser la politique?, Paris: Seuil. Badiou, A., 1988, L’être et l’évènement, Paris: Seuil.
- Badiou, A., 1994, ‘Being by Numbers’, An interview with Lauren Sedowsky, ArtForum, October.
- Badiou, A., 1998a, Abrégé de Métapolitique, Paris: Seuil; English trans. Metapolitics, London: Verso 2005.
- Badiou, A., 1998b, D’un désastre obscur: sur la fin de la vérité d’état, Paris: éditions de l’aube.
- Badiou, A., 2001a, Ethics: An Essay on the Understanding of Evil, London: Verso.
- Badiou, A., 2001b, Interview, Cabinet Magazine Online, Issue 5 Winter (http://www.cabinetmagazine.org/issues/5/alainbadiou.php).
- Badiou, A., 2004, ‘Beyond Formalisation’, Interview with Peter Hallward et Bruno Bosteels, Wednesday 1st December (http://ciepfc.rhapsodyk.net/).
- Badiou, A., 2005a, Le Siècle, Paris: Seuil.
- Badiou, A., 2005b, ‘The Cultural Revolution: The Last Revolution?’, Positions, vol. 13, no. 3, Special issue on the Cultural Revolution in China, ed. T. Barlow.
- Badiou, A., 2005c, ‘AGR interviews Professor Alain Badiou’, Ashville Global Report, September (http://mambo.agrnews.rack2.purplecat.net/).
- Balibar, E., 1994, ‘“Rights of Man” and “Rights of the Citizen”: The Modern Dialectic of Equality and Freedom’, in E. Balibar, Masses, Classes, Ideas: Studies on Politics and Philosophy before and after Marx, New York and London: Routledge.
- Ballard, R. et al., 2005, ‘An Anatomy of New Power’, Mail & Guardian, 21st January.
- Barchiesi, F., 2005, ‘Classes, Multitudes and the Politics of Community Movements in Post-apartheid South Africa’, in Gibson, N., ed., Challenging Hegemony: Social Movements and the Quest for a New Humanism in South Africa, New Jersey: Africa World Press.
- Césaire, A., 1972, Discourse on Colonialism, New York: Monthly Review Press.
- Chatterjee, P., 1993, The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
- Chatterjee, P., 2004, The Politics of the Governed: Reflections on Popular Politics in Most of the World, New York: Columbia University Press.
- Chatterjee, P. and Pandey, G., eds., 1992, Subaltern Studies VII, Delhi: Oxford University Press.
- Constitutional Assembly (of the Republic of South Africa), 1997, The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Annotated Version, Constitutional Assembly. Cooke, B. and Kothari, U., eds., 2002, Participation: the New Tyranny, New York and London: Zed Books.
- Cowen, M.P. and Shenton, R.W., 1996, Doctrines of Development, London: Routledge.
- Cowen, M.P. and Laakso, L., eds., 2002, Multi-party Elections in Africa, Oxford: James Currey.
- Desai, A. and Pithouse, R., 2003, ‘“But We Were Thousands”: Dispossession, Resistance, Repossession and Repression in Mandela Park’, CCS Research Report No. 9.
- Englund, H., 2004, ‘Transnational Governance and the Pacification of Youth: The Contribution of Civic Education to Disempowerment in Malawi’, CCS Research Report No. 13, Durban.
- Erwin, A., 1998, ‘Government is not an NGO’, South African Labour Bulletin, vol. 22, no. 3, June.
- Fanon, F., 1989, Studies in a Dying Colonialism, London: Earthscan. Fanon, F., 1990, The Wretched of the Earth, London: Penguin.
- Finley, M. I., 1985, Democracy Ancient and Modern, London: The Hogarth Press.
- Foucault, M., 2000, Power: Essential Works of Foucault 1954-1984 vol 3, London: Penguin.
- Frederich Ebert Stiftung, 2004, ‘What Kind of Future? Modernization and Organisational Reform of Political Parties’, and Statement by Ulrich Golaszinski, Maputo, 20-22 October.
- Fullard, M. and Rousseau, N., 2003, ‘An Imperfect Past: Truth and Reconciliation Commission in Transition’, in Daniel, J., Habib, A., and Southall, R., eds., State of the Nation: South Africa 2003-2004, Cape Town: HSRC Press.
- Gramsci, A., 1971, Selections from the Prison Notebooks, London: Lawrence and Wishart.
- Hallward, P., 2003, Badiou: A Subject to Truth, Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press.
- Hardt, M. and Negri, A., 2001, Empire, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
- Hassim, S., 1999, ‘From Presence to Power: Women’s Citizenship in a New Democracy’, Agenda, no. 40.
- Harvey, D., 1990, The Condition of Postmodernity, Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell.
- Harvey, D., 2005, The New Imperialism, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Kanyinga, K. and Katumanga, M., 2003, ‘Citizenship and Rights: The Failures of the Post-colonial State in Africa’, Africa Development, vol. 28, nos. 1&2.
- Krenshaw, K., 2000, ‘Were the Critics Right about Rights? Reassessing the American Debate about Rights in the Post-reform Era’, in M. Mamdani, ed., Beyond Rights Talk and Culture Talk, Cape Town: David Philip.
- La Distance Politique, 2005, ‘Parler Politique, Parler de la Politique’, Supplément à La Distance Politique, Mars.
- Lazarus, S., 1996, Anthropologie du Nom, Paris: Seuil.
- Lenin, V.I., 1918, ‘The Immediate Tasks of the Soviet Government’, in Collected Works, volume 27, London: Lawrence and Wishart.
- Lenin, V.I., 1919, ‘The Trade Unions, the Present Situation and Trotsky’s Mistakes’, in Collected Works volume 32, London: Lawrence and Wishart.
- Mamdani, M., 1987, ‘Contradictory Class Perspectives on the Question of Democracy: The case of Uganda’, in Anyang Nyong’o, P., ed., Popular Struggles for Democracy in Africa, London: Zed Books.
- Mamdani, M., 1995, ‘Democratic Theory and Democratic Struggles’, in Chole, E. and Ibrahim, J., eds., Democratisation Processes in Africa: Problems and Prospects, Dakar: CODESRIA.
- Marshall, T.H., 1964, Class, Citizenship and Social Development, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- Marx, K., 1844, ‘Toward a Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right. Introduction’, in D. McLellan, ed., Karl Marx: Early Texts, Oxford: Blackwell 1971.
- Meister, R., 2002, ‘Human Rights and the Politics of Victimhood’, Ethics and International Affairs, vol. 16, no. 2.
- Mutua, M.W., 2002, Human Rights: A Political and Cultural Critique, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
- Neocosmos, M., 1998, ‘From People’s Politics to State Politics: Aspects of National Liberation in South Africa’, in A. Olukoshi, ed., The Politics of Opposition in Contemporary Africa, Uppsala: Nordic Africa Institute.
- Neocosmos, M., 1999, ‘Intellectual Debates and Popular Struggles in Transitional South Africa: Political Discourse and the Origins of Statism’, Seminar, Centre for African Studies, University of Cape Town, April 21.
- Neocosmos, M., 2003, ‘The Contradictory Position of “Tradition” in African Nationalist Discourse: Some Analytical Reflections’, Africa Development, Special Issue on ‘Globalization and Citizenship in Africa’, vol. 28, nos. 1&2.
- Neocosmos, M., 2005, ‘Rethinking Politics in Southern Africa Today: Elements of a Critique of Political Liberalism’, in Gibson, N., ed., Challenging Hegemony, New Jersey: Africa World Press.
- Neocosmos, M., 2006, From Foreign Natives to Native Foreigners: Explaining Xenophobia in Post-apartheid South Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA Books.
- Poulantzas, N., 1978, State, Power, Socialism, London: New Left Books.
- Rancière, J., 1995, La Mésentente, Paris: Galilée.
- Rawls, J., 2003, The Law of Peoples, Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Press. Rueschemeyer, D., Stephens, E.H. and Stephens, J.D., 1992, Capitalist Development and Democracy, London: Polity Press.
- Scott, J., 1998, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed, New Haven: Yale University Press.
- Sen, A.K., 1999, Development as Freedom, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Shivji, I., ed., 1985, The State and the Working People in Tanzania, Dakar: CODESRIA.
- Shivji, I., ed., 1991, State and Constitutionalism: An African Debate on Democracy, Harare: SAPES Books.
- Sibanda, A., 2002, ‘Voicing a Peasant Alternative: The Organisation of Rural Associations of Progress (ORAP) in Zimbabwe’, in Ben Romdhane, M. and Moyo, S., eds., Peasant Organisations and the Democratisation Process in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
- Stedman-Jones, G., 2004, An End to Poverty?, London: Profile Books.
- Taylor, H., 2002, ‘Insights into Participation from Critical Management and Labour Process Perspectives’, in Cooke, B. and Kothari, U., Participation: the New Tyranny, London: Zed Books.
- Van Kessel, I., 2000, “Beyond our Wildest Dreams”: The United Democratic Front and the transformation of South Africa, Charlottesville and London: University of Virginia Press.
- Wamba-dia-Wamba, E., 1994, ‘Africa in Search of a New Mode of Politics’, in H. Himmelstrand, ed., African Perspectives on Development, London: James Currey.
- Wamba-dia-Wamba, E., 1985, ‘Experience of Democracy in Africa: Reflections on the Practice of Communalist Palaver as a Method of Resolving Contradictions Among the People’, Philosophy and Social Action, July– September, vol. 11, no. 3.
- Wilson, R. A., 2001, The Politics of Truth and Reconciliation in South Africa: Legitimizing the Post-apartheid State, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Zizek, S., 1999, The Ticklish Subject: the Absent Centre of Political Ontology, London: Verso.
References
Adesina, J., 2004, ‘NEPAD and the Challenge of Africa’s Development: Towards the Political Economy of a Discourse’, Society in Transition, vol. 35, no. 1.
Ake, C., 2003, The Feasibility of Democracy in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Alexander, P., 2005, ‘Globalisation and New Social Identities: A Jig-saw Puzzle from Johannesburg’, Paper presented at the University of Pretoria, Department of Sociology Seminar, May 10th.
Althusser, L. 1971, ‘Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses’, in Althusser, L. Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, London: New Left Books.
Altman, M., 2003, ‘The State of Employment and Unemployment in South Africa’, in Daniel, J. et al., State of the Nation: South Africa 2003-2004, Cape Town: HSRC Press.
Amadiume, I., 1997, Reinventing Africa, London: Zed Press
Amin, S. and Sridhar, V., 2002, ‘For Struggles, Global and National’, An interview with Samir Amin by V. Sridhar, Centre for Civil Society, University of Kwazulu- Natal (www.ukzn.ac.za/ccs/).
Anweiler, O., 1972, Les Soviets en Russie: 1905-1921, Paris: Gallimard.
Arendt, H., 1963, On Revolution, London: Penguin.
Arendt, H., 1982, Lectures on Kant’s Political Philosophy, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Assiter, A., 1999, ‘Citizenship Revisited’, in Yuval-Davis, N. and Werbner, P., Women, Citizenship and Difference, London: Zed Press.
Badiou, A., 1982, Théorie du Sujet, Paris: Seuil.
Badiou, A., 1985, Peut-on penser la politique?, Paris: Seuil. Badiou, A., 1988, L’être et l’évènement, Paris: Seuil.
Badiou, A., 1994, ‘Being by Numbers’, An interview with Lauren Sedowsky, ArtForum, October.
Badiou, A., 1998a, Abrégé de Métapolitique, Paris: Seuil; English trans. Metapolitics, London: Verso 2005.
Badiou, A., 1998b, D’un désastre obscur: sur la fin de la vérité d’état, Paris: éditions de l’aube.
Badiou, A., 2001a, Ethics: An Essay on the Understanding of Evil, London: Verso.
Badiou, A., 2001b, Interview, Cabinet Magazine Online, Issue 5 Winter (http://www.cabinetmagazine.org/issues/5/alainbadiou.php).
Badiou, A., 2004, ‘Beyond Formalisation’, Interview with Peter Hallward et Bruno Bosteels, Wednesday 1st December (http://ciepfc.rhapsodyk.net/).
Badiou, A., 2005a, Le Siècle, Paris: Seuil.
Badiou, A., 2005b, ‘The Cultural Revolution: The Last Revolution?’, Positions, vol. 13, no. 3, Special issue on the Cultural Revolution in China, ed. T. Barlow.
Badiou, A., 2005c, ‘AGR interviews Professor Alain Badiou’, Ashville Global Report, September (http://mambo.agrnews.rack2.purplecat.net/).
Balibar, E., 1994, ‘“Rights of Man” and “Rights of the Citizen”: The Modern Dialectic of Equality and Freedom’, in E. Balibar, Masses, Classes, Ideas: Studies on Politics and Philosophy before and after Marx, New York and London: Routledge.
Ballard, R. et al., 2005, ‘An Anatomy of New Power’, Mail & Guardian, 21st January.
Barchiesi, F., 2005, ‘Classes, Multitudes and the Politics of Community Movements in Post-apartheid South Africa’, in Gibson, N., ed., Challenging Hegemony: Social Movements and the Quest for a New Humanism in South Africa, New Jersey: Africa World Press.
Césaire, A., 1972, Discourse on Colonialism, New York: Monthly Review Press.
Chatterjee, P., 1993, The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Chatterjee, P., 2004, The Politics of the Governed: Reflections on Popular Politics in Most of the World, New York: Columbia University Press.
Chatterjee, P. and Pandey, G., eds., 1992, Subaltern Studies VII, Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Constitutional Assembly (of the Republic of South Africa), 1997, The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Annotated Version, Constitutional Assembly. Cooke, B. and Kothari, U., eds., 2002, Participation: the New Tyranny, New York and London: Zed Books.
Cowen, M.P. and Shenton, R.W., 1996, Doctrines of Development, London: Routledge.
Cowen, M.P. and Laakso, L., eds., 2002, Multi-party Elections in Africa, Oxford: James Currey.
Desai, A. and Pithouse, R., 2003, ‘“But We Were Thousands”: Dispossession, Resistance, Repossession and Repression in Mandela Park’, CCS Research Report No. 9.
Englund, H., 2004, ‘Transnational Governance and the Pacification of Youth: The Contribution of Civic Education to Disempowerment in Malawi’, CCS Research Report No. 13, Durban.
Erwin, A., 1998, ‘Government is not an NGO’, South African Labour Bulletin, vol. 22, no. 3, June.
Fanon, F., 1989, Studies in a Dying Colonialism, London: Earthscan. Fanon, F., 1990, The Wretched of the Earth, London: Penguin.
Finley, M. I., 1985, Democracy Ancient and Modern, London: The Hogarth Press.
Foucault, M., 2000, Power: Essential Works of Foucault 1954-1984 vol 3, London: Penguin.
Frederich Ebert Stiftung, 2004, ‘What Kind of Future? Modernization and Organisational Reform of Political Parties’, and Statement by Ulrich Golaszinski, Maputo, 20-22 October.
Fullard, M. and Rousseau, N., 2003, ‘An Imperfect Past: Truth and Reconciliation Commission in Transition’, in Daniel, J., Habib, A., and Southall, R., eds., State of the Nation: South Africa 2003-2004, Cape Town: HSRC Press.
Gramsci, A., 1971, Selections from the Prison Notebooks, London: Lawrence and Wishart.
Hallward, P., 2003, Badiou: A Subject to Truth, Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press.
Hardt, M. and Negri, A., 2001, Empire, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Hassim, S., 1999, ‘From Presence to Power: Women’s Citizenship in a New Democracy’, Agenda, no. 40.
Harvey, D., 1990, The Condition of Postmodernity, Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell.
Harvey, D., 2005, The New Imperialism, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kanyinga, K. and Katumanga, M., 2003, ‘Citizenship and Rights: The Failures of the Post-colonial State in Africa’, Africa Development, vol. 28, nos. 1&2.
Krenshaw, K., 2000, ‘Were the Critics Right about Rights? Reassessing the American Debate about Rights in the Post-reform Era’, in M. Mamdani, ed., Beyond Rights Talk and Culture Talk, Cape Town: David Philip.
La Distance Politique, 2005, ‘Parler Politique, Parler de la Politique’, Supplément à La Distance Politique, Mars.
Lazarus, S., 1996, Anthropologie du Nom, Paris: Seuil.
Lenin, V.I., 1918, ‘The Immediate Tasks of the Soviet Government’, in Collected Works, volume 27, London: Lawrence and Wishart.
Lenin, V.I., 1919, ‘The Trade Unions, the Present Situation and Trotsky’s Mistakes’, in Collected Works volume 32, London: Lawrence and Wishart.
Mamdani, M., 1987, ‘Contradictory Class Perspectives on the Question of Democracy: The case of Uganda’, in Anyang Nyong’o, P., ed., Popular Struggles for Democracy in Africa, London: Zed Books.
Mamdani, M., 1995, ‘Democratic Theory and Democratic Struggles’, in Chole, E. and Ibrahim, J., eds., Democratisation Processes in Africa: Problems and Prospects, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Marshall, T.H., 1964, Class, Citizenship and Social Development, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Marx, K., 1844, ‘Toward a Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right. Introduction’, in D. McLellan, ed., Karl Marx: Early Texts, Oxford: Blackwell 1971.
Meister, R., 2002, ‘Human Rights and the Politics of Victimhood’, Ethics and International Affairs, vol. 16, no. 2.
Mutua, M.W., 2002, Human Rights: A Political and Cultural Critique, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
Neocosmos, M., 1998, ‘From People’s Politics to State Politics: Aspects of National Liberation in South Africa’, in A. Olukoshi, ed., The Politics of Opposition in Contemporary Africa, Uppsala: Nordic Africa Institute.
Neocosmos, M., 1999, ‘Intellectual Debates and Popular Struggles in Transitional South Africa: Political Discourse and the Origins of Statism’, Seminar, Centre for African Studies, University of Cape Town, April 21.
Neocosmos, M., 2003, ‘The Contradictory Position of “Tradition” in African Nationalist Discourse: Some Analytical Reflections’, Africa Development, Special Issue on ‘Globalization and Citizenship in Africa’, vol. 28, nos. 1&2.
Neocosmos, M., 2005, ‘Rethinking Politics in Southern Africa Today: Elements of a Critique of Political Liberalism’, in Gibson, N., ed., Challenging Hegemony, New Jersey: Africa World Press.
Neocosmos, M., 2006, From Foreign Natives to Native Foreigners: Explaining Xenophobia in Post-apartheid South Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA Books.
Poulantzas, N., 1978, State, Power, Socialism, London: New Left Books.
Rancière, J., 1995, La Mésentente, Paris: Galilée.
Rawls, J., 2003, The Law of Peoples, Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Press. Rueschemeyer, D., Stephens, E.H. and Stephens, J.D., 1992, Capitalist Development and Democracy, London: Polity Press.
Scott, J., 1998, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed, New Haven: Yale University Press.
Sen, A.K., 1999, Development as Freedom, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Shivji, I., ed., 1985, The State and the Working People in Tanzania, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Shivji, I., ed., 1991, State and Constitutionalism: An African Debate on Democracy, Harare: SAPES Books.
Sibanda, A., 2002, ‘Voicing a Peasant Alternative: The Organisation of Rural Associations of Progress (ORAP) in Zimbabwe’, in Ben Romdhane, M. and Moyo, S., eds., Peasant Organisations and the Democratisation Process in Africa, Dakar: CODESRIA.
Stedman-Jones, G., 2004, An End to Poverty?, London: Profile Books.
Taylor, H., 2002, ‘Insights into Participation from Critical Management and Labour Process Perspectives’, in Cooke, B. and Kothari, U., Participation: the New Tyranny, London: Zed Books.
Van Kessel, I., 2000, “Beyond our Wildest Dreams”: The United Democratic Front and the transformation of South Africa, Charlottesville and London: University of Virginia Press.
Wamba-dia-Wamba, E., 1994, ‘Africa in Search of a New Mode of Politics’, in H. Himmelstrand, ed., African Perspectives on Development, London: James Currey.
Wamba-dia-Wamba, E., 1985, ‘Experience of Democracy in Africa: Reflections on the Practice of Communalist Palaver as a Method of Resolving Contradictions Among the People’, Philosophy and Social Action, July– September, vol. 11, no. 3.
Wilson, R. A., 2001, The Politics of Truth and Reconciliation in South Africa: Legitimizing the Post-apartheid State, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Zizek, S., 1999, The Ticklish Subject: the Absent Centre of Political Ontology, London: Verso.