5 - Nigeria’s Foreign and Defence Policies During Babangida's Regime: An Assessment
Corresponding Author(s) : Dele Jemirade
Africa Development,
Vol. 46 No. 3 (2021): Africa Development
Abstract
This article investigates the changes to and achievements of Nigeria’s foreign
and defence policies from 1985 to 1993. It also examines the economic,
political, and sociocultural implications of these policies on the nation. The
article argues that despite some identified failures of Ibrahim Babangida’s
regime, certain innovations and actions, especially the foreign and defence
policies that were introduced and carried out by his government, were
significant in nature. The article also addresses the interlocking relationship
between defence and foreign policy execution and concludes with
recommendations on how this can be managed to promote the effectiveness
of Nigeria’s external relations. The article depended largely on archival
materials from the Nigerian Institute of International Affairs, supported
by scholarly journal articles, books and newspaper materials.
Keywords
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- Abacha, S., Rt. Gen., 15 December 1992, The National Defence Policy of Nigeria, Lecture delivered at The National War College, Lagos.
- Ab ola, Z. D., 1999, From Abubakar to Abubakar: 40 Years of Nigerian’s Foreign Policy, buja: Newsbreak Communications Limited.
- Jemirade: Nigeria's Foreign and Defence Policies During Babangida's Regime Adejumobi, S., 1995, The Structural Adjustment Programme and the Transition to Civil Rule Project in Nigeria, 1986 1993, in Mimiko, N., ed, Crises and Contradic- tions in Nigeria’s Democratization Program 1986–1993, Akure: Stebak Ventures. Adeniji, O., ed, 2000, Essays on Nigerian Foreign Policy, Governance, and International Security, Ibadan: Dokun Publishing House.
- Aderinto, A. A., 1990, Defence Budgeting and Management, in Ekoko, E. A. and Vogt, M. A., eds, Nigeria’s Defence Policy: Issues and Problems, Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited.
- Agbese, D., 2012, Ibrahim Babangida: The Military, Politics and Power in Nigeria, London, UK: Adonis and Abbey Publishers.
- Ajayi, G., 1995, Babangida’s Transition Programme, 1986–1993, in Mimiko, N., ed, Crises and Contradictions in Nigeria’s Democratization Program 1986–1993, Akure: Stebak Ventures.
- Ajayi, K., 1995, The 1993 Presidential Election And Nation Building in Nigeria, in Mimiko, N., ed, Crises and Contradictions in Nigeria’s Democratization Program 1986–1993, Akure: Stebak Ventures..Ake, C., 1995, Is Africa Democratising? in Mimiko, N., ed, Crises and Contradictions in Nigeria’s Democratization Program 1986–1993, Akure: Stebak Ventures.
- Akindele, R. A. and Ate, B. E., eds, 2000, Selected Readings in Nigeria’s Foreign Policy and International Relations, Ibadan: Vantage Publishers.
- Akinyeye, Y., 2003a, Nigeria and Africa in the 20th Century, in Akinyeye, Y., ed, Nigeria and the Wider World in the 20th Century, Ibadan: Davidson Press.
- Akinyeye, Y., 2003b, Nigeria and Peacekeeping in the 20th Century, in Akinyeye, Y., ed, Nigeria and the Wider World in the 20th Century, Ibadan: Davidson Press.
- Amin, L. S., 1998, Nigeria’s Weapon Procurement Process: Its Implication for Her Defence Policy, Lagos: NIIA. Ate, B. E. and Akinterinwa, B. A., eds, 1992, Nigeria and Its Immediate Neighbours: Con- straints and Prospects of Sub-Regional Security in the 1990’s, Lagos, Pumark Publishers. Babangida, I., 1985, Nigerian Armed Forces Role in Combating Internal Threats: Available Options, Defence Strategy Review, Vol. 11, No. 10.
- Babangida, I. (Rt. Gen.), 15 March 1985, Defence Policy within the Framework of National Planning, Lecture delivered on the occasion of the Gold Medal Public Affairs Series at Eko Hotel, Lagos.
- Babangida, I. (Rt. Gen.), August 1985, Sound Defence Policy and Nigeria’s Foreign Policy Objectives, Lecture given to head of Nigerian Missions Abroad at Nigerian Institute for Policy Strategic Studies, Jos.
- Babangida, I. (Rt. Gen.), October 1990, The Imperative Features of Nigerian Foreign and Defence Policy and The Liberian Crises, Press conference in Lagos.
- Bali, D. (Rt. Gen.), 11 March 1986, The National Defence Policy of Nigeria, Lecture delivered at the University of Jos.
- Bamikole, L. O., 1995, The Babangida Regime: Violence in the Service of Power, in Mimiko, N., ed., Crises and Contradictions in Nigeria’s Democratization Program 1986–1993, Akure: Stebak Ventures.
- Banjo, W. S., 1997, Nigeria: Political Violence in the Third Republic, Los Angeles, CA: Afreb Publishers.
- Africa Development, Volume XLVI, No. 3, 2021
- Buhari, M. (Rt. Gen.), December 1984, 25 years of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy, Speech delivered at Nigerian Institute of International Affairs, Lagos.
- Bukarambe, B., 2000., Nigeria’s Foreign Policy in Africa, 1960–1999, in Akindele, R. A. and Bassey, E. A., eds, Selected Readings on Nigeria’s Foreign Policy and International Relations, Ibadan:Vantage.
- Federal Office of Statistics, Lagos, and Federal Ministry of Information Abuja, Budget Speeches of Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1986-1992.
- Ekoko, E. A., April 1990, The Principles and Practice of Alliance Formation and Nige- rian Defence, Seminar paper presented at the Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna. Ekoko, E. A. and Vogt, M. A., eds, 1990, Nigeria’s Defence Policy: Issues and Problems, Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited.
- Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2019, Ibrahim Babangida, revised and updated by Amy McKenna.Fage, K. S., 2012, The Technical Aid Corps Scheme as an Instrument of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy: An Assessment, in Imobighe, T. A. and Alli, M. A., Perspectives on Nigeria’s National Politics and External Relations: Essays in Honour of Professor A. Bolaji Akinyemi, Ibadan: University Press PLC.
- Falode, A. J., 2019, The Military and Nation Building in Nigeria: The General Ibrahim Babangida Regime, 1985–1993, International Letters of Social and Humanities Studies, Vol. 85, No. 37, pp. 37–48.
- Fawole, A., 1995, The Military and the Democratisation Process in Nigeria under the Babangida Regime, in Mimiko, N., ed., Crises and Contradictions in Nigeria’s Democratization Program 1986–1993, Akure: Stebak Ventures.
- Federal Ministry of External Affairs, 1991, Nigeria at the United Nations: A Partnership for a Better World, Lagos: Third Press Publishers.
- Gray, D. M., 1965, The Foreign Policy Process in the Emerging African Nation: Nigeria, PhD dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.
- Grechko, A., 1990, cited in Ekoko, E. A. and Vogt, M. A., eds, Nigeria’s Defence Policy: Issues and Problems, Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited..
- Ibrahim, S., 1988, Nigerian National Values and Interest, The Eagle, Nigerian Armed Forces Publications, Lagos.
- Ihonvbere, J. O., 1995, Is Democracy Possible in Africa? in Mimiko, N., ed., Crises and Contradictions in Nigeria’s Democratization Program 1986–1993, Akure: Stebak Ventures. Imobighe, T. A., 1987, Nigerian Defence and Security: Issues and Options, Lagos: Macmillan Publishers.
- Imobighe, T. A., 1989, Nigerian Defence and National Security Linkages: Framework of Analysis, Ibadan: Heinemann Publishers.
- Iyayi, F., 1989, The Trouble with Babangida, Index on Censorship, No. 2. Benin: Index on Censorship.
- Jac son, R. and Sorensen, G., 2003, Introduction to International Relations: Theories d Approaches, 2nd ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Jemirade: Nigeria's Foreign and Defence Policies During Babangida's Regime Jemirade, D., 2020, Transformations in Nigeria’s Foreign Policy: From Balewa to Obasanjo, African Journal of Political Science and International Relations, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 126–139.
- Kissinger, H., [1969] 2000, Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy, Cited from Adeniji, O., ed, Essays on Nigeria Foreign Policy, Governance, and International Security, Ibadan: Dokun Publishing House.
- Kolawole, D., 1995, Problems of Democratisation At Local Government Level: A Personal Experience, in Mimiko, N., ed., Crises and Contradictions in Nigeria’s Democratization Program 1986–1993, Akure: Stebak Ventures.
- Lawal, A. A., 2003, Nigeria’s Foreign Aid Policy in Africa, in Akinyeye, Y., ed, Nigeria and the Wider World in the 20th Century, Ibadan: Davidson Press.
- McDikkoh, D., 2010, The Nigerian Health System Debacle and Failure, Bloomington, IN: Xlibris Corporation.
- Miller, T. B., 1981, Alliance in the 1970s and 1980s: Problems of Cohesion and Effectiveness, in O’Neil, T. and Horner, D. M., eds, New Directions in Strategic Thinking, London, UK: Allen and Unwin.
- Mimiko, N., 1995a, Crises and Contradictions in Nigeria’s Democratization Program 1986–1993, Akure: Stebak Ventures.
- Mimiko, N., 1995b, The Relative Impact of Internal and External Constraints on the Democratic Process in Africa: The Case of Nigeria, in Mimiko, N., ed., Crises and Contradictions in Nigeria’s Democratization Program 1986–1993, Akure: Stebak Ventures.
- Ndiomu, C. (Rt. Gen.), August 1990, 25 years of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy and Nigerian Defence Policy since Independence, Lecture delivered at the National Institute of Policy and Strategic Studies, Jos.
- Nigeria National Press for the Federal Ministry of Information, 1964, Mr. Prime Minister.
- Northedge, F. N., ed., 1969, The Foreign Policies of the Powers, London, UK: Faber and Faber. Nweze, C. C. (Rt. Gen.), 1990, Instruments of National Security and an Alternative Force in Ekoko, E. A. and Vogt, M. A., eds, Nigeria’s Defence Policy: Issues and Problems, Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited.
- Obiozor, G. A., 1992a, Basic Issues in Nigeria’s Foreign Policy: I. B. B’s Foreign Policy Pronouncements 1988–1991, Lagos: Nigerian Institute of International Relations. Obiozor, G. A., 1992b, Nigeria Foreign Policy in Perspective: Admiral Augustus Aikhomu’s Foreign Policy Statements (1987–1992), Lagos: Nigerian Institute of International Relations.
- Obiozor, G. A., 1994, The Politics of Precarious Balancing: An Analysis of Conten- ding Issues in Nigeria Domestic and Foreign Policy, Lagos: Nigerian Institute of International Relations.
- Ogunade, D., 1987, Getting Our Priorities Right, The Sunday Concord, 25 January, Lagos.
- Ojanen, H., 2006, The EU and Nato: Two Competing Models for a Common Defence policy, Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 44, No. 1, pp. 57–76.
References
Abacha, S., Rt. Gen., 15 December 1992, The National Defence Policy of Nigeria, Lecture delivered at The National War College, Lagos.
Ab ola, Z. D., 1999, From Abubakar to Abubakar: 40 Years of Nigerian’s Foreign Policy, buja: Newsbreak Communications Limited.
Jemirade: Nigeria's Foreign and Defence Policies During Babangida's Regime Adejumobi, S., 1995, The Structural Adjustment Programme and the Transition to Civil Rule Project in Nigeria, 1986 1993, in Mimiko, N., ed, Crises and Contradic- tions in Nigeria’s Democratization Program 1986–1993, Akure: Stebak Ventures. Adeniji, O., ed, 2000, Essays on Nigerian Foreign Policy, Governance, and International Security, Ibadan: Dokun Publishing House.
Aderinto, A. A., 1990, Defence Budgeting and Management, in Ekoko, E. A. and Vogt, M. A., eds, Nigeria’s Defence Policy: Issues and Problems, Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited.
Agbese, D., 2012, Ibrahim Babangida: The Military, Politics and Power in Nigeria, London, UK: Adonis and Abbey Publishers.
Ajayi, G., 1995, Babangida’s Transition Programme, 1986–1993, in Mimiko, N., ed, Crises and Contradictions in Nigeria’s Democratization Program 1986–1993, Akure: Stebak Ventures.
Ajayi, K., 1995, The 1993 Presidential Election And Nation Building in Nigeria, in Mimiko, N., ed, Crises and Contradictions in Nigeria’s Democratization Program 1986–1993, Akure: Stebak Ventures..Ake, C., 1995, Is Africa Democratising? in Mimiko, N., ed, Crises and Contradictions in Nigeria’s Democratization Program 1986–1993, Akure: Stebak Ventures.
Akindele, R. A. and Ate, B. E., eds, 2000, Selected Readings in Nigeria’s Foreign Policy and International Relations, Ibadan: Vantage Publishers.
Akinyeye, Y., 2003a, Nigeria and Africa in the 20th Century, in Akinyeye, Y., ed, Nigeria and the Wider World in the 20th Century, Ibadan: Davidson Press.
Akinyeye, Y., 2003b, Nigeria and Peacekeeping in the 20th Century, in Akinyeye, Y., ed, Nigeria and the Wider World in the 20th Century, Ibadan: Davidson Press.
Amin, L. S., 1998, Nigeria’s Weapon Procurement Process: Its Implication for Her Defence Policy, Lagos: NIIA. Ate, B. E. and Akinterinwa, B. A., eds, 1992, Nigeria and Its Immediate Neighbours: Con- straints and Prospects of Sub-Regional Security in the 1990’s, Lagos, Pumark Publishers. Babangida, I., 1985, Nigerian Armed Forces Role in Combating Internal Threats: Available Options, Defence Strategy Review, Vol. 11, No. 10.
Babangida, I. (Rt. Gen.), 15 March 1985, Defence Policy within the Framework of National Planning, Lecture delivered on the occasion of the Gold Medal Public Affairs Series at Eko Hotel, Lagos.
Babangida, I. (Rt. Gen.), August 1985, Sound Defence Policy and Nigeria’s Foreign Policy Objectives, Lecture given to head of Nigerian Missions Abroad at Nigerian Institute for Policy Strategic Studies, Jos.
Babangida, I. (Rt. Gen.), October 1990, The Imperative Features of Nigerian Foreign and Defence Policy and The Liberian Crises, Press conference in Lagos.
Bali, D. (Rt. Gen.), 11 March 1986, The National Defence Policy of Nigeria, Lecture delivered at the University of Jos.
Bamikole, L. O., 1995, The Babangida Regime: Violence in the Service of Power, in Mimiko, N., ed., Crises and Contradictions in Nigeria’s Democratization Program 1986–1993, Akure: Stebak Ventures.
Banjo, W. S., 1997, Nigeria: Political Violence in the Third Republic, Los Angeles, CA: Afreb Publishers.
Africa Development, Volume XLVI, No. 3, 2021
Buhari, M. (Rt. Gen.), December 1984, 25 years of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy, Speech delivered at Nigerian Institute of International Affairs, Lagos.
Bukarambe, B., 2000., Nigeria’s Foreign Policy in Africa, 1960–1999, in Akindele, R. A. and Bassey, E. A., eds, Selected Readings on Nigeria’s Foreign Policy and International Relations, Ibadan:Vantage.
Federal Office of Statistics, Lagos, and Federal Ministry of Information Abuja, Budget Speeches of Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1986-1992.
Ekoko, E. A., April 1990, The Principles and Practice of Alliance Formation and Nige- rian Defence, Seminar paper presented at the Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna. Ekoko, E. A. and Vogt, M. A., eds, 1990, Nigeria’s Defence Policy: Issues and Problems, Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited.
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2019, Ibrahim Babangida, revised and updated by Amy McKenna.Fage, K. S., 2012, The Technical Aid Corps Scheme as an Instrument of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy: An Assessment, in Imobighe, T. A. and Alli, M. A., Perspectives on Nigeria’s National Politics and External Relations: Essays in Honour of Professor A. Bolaji Akinyemi, Ibadan: University Press PLC.
Falode, A. J., 2019, The Military and Nation Building in Nigeria: The General Ibrahim Babangida Regime, 1985–1993, International Letters of Social and Humanities Studies, Vol. 85, No. 37, pp. 37–48.
Fawole, A., 1995, The Military and the Democratisation Process in Nigeria under the Babangida Regime, in Mimiko, N., ed., Crises and Contradictions in Nigeria’s Democratization Program 1986–1993, Akure: Stebak Ventures.
Federal Ministry of External Affairs, 1991, Nigeria at the United Nations: A Partnership for a Better World, Lagos: Third Press Publishers.
Gray, D. M., 1965, The Foreign Policy Process in the Emerging African Nation: Nigeria, PhD dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.
Grechko, A., 1990, cited in Ekoko, E. A. and Vogt, M. A., eds, Nigeria’s Defence Policy: Issues and Problems, Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited..
Ibrahim, S., 1988, Nigerian National Values and Interest, The Eagle, Nigerian Armed Forces Publications, Lagos.
Ihonvbere, J. O., 1995, Is Democracy Possible in Africa? in Mimiko, N., ed., Crises and Contradictions in Nigeria’s Democratization Program 1986–1993, Akure: Stebak Ventures. Imobighe, T. A., 1987, Nigerian Defence and Security: Issues and Options, Lagos: Macmillan Publishers.
Imobighe, T. A., 1989, Nigerian Defence and National Security Linkages: Framework of Analysis, Ibadan: Heinemann Publishers.
Iyayi, F., 1989, The Trouble with Babangida, Index on Censorship, No. 2. Benin: Index on Censorship.
Jac son, R. and Sorensen, G., 2003, Introduction to International Relations: Theories d Approaches, 2nd ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Jemirade: Nigeria's Foreign and Defence Policies During Babangida's Regime Jemirade, D., 2020, Transformations in Nigeria’s Foreign Policy: From Balewa to Obasanjo, African Journal of Political Science and International Relations, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 126–139.
Kissinger, H., [1969] 2000, Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy, Cited from Adeniji, O., ed, Essays on Nigeria Foreign Policy, Governance, and International Security, Ibadan: Dokun Publishing House.
Kolawole, D., 1995, Problems of Democratisation At Local Government Level: A Personal Experience, in Mimiko, N., ed., Crises and Contradictions in Nigeria’s Democratization Program 1986–1993, Akure: Stebak Ventures.
Lawal, A. A., 2003, Nigeria’s Foreign Aid Policy in Africa, in Akinyeye, Y., ed, Nigeria and the Wider World in the 20th Century, Ibadan: Davidson Press.
McDikkoh, D., 2010, The Nigerian Health System Debacle and Failure, Bloomington, IN: Xlibris Corporation.
Miller, T. B., 1981, Alliance in the 1970s and 1980s: Problems of Cohesion and Effectiveness, in O’Neil, T. and Horner, D. M., eds, New Directions in Strategic Thinking, London, UK: Allen and Unwin.
Mimiko, N., 1995a, Crises and Contradictions in Nigeria’s Democratization Program 1986–1993, Akure: Stebak Ventures.
Mimiko, N., 1995b, The Relative Impact of Internal and External Constraints on the Democratic Process in Africa: The Case of Nigeria, in Mimiko, N., ed., Crises and Contradictions in Nigeria’s Democratization Program 1986–1993, Akure: Stebak Ventures.
Ndiomu, C. (Rt. Gen.), August 1990, 25 years of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy and Nigerian Defence Policy since Independence, Lecture delivered at the National Institute of Policy and Strategic Studies, Jos.
Nigeria National Press for the Federal Ministry of Information, 1964, Mr. Prime Minister.
Northedge, F. N., ed., 1969, The Foreign Policies of the Powers, London, UK: Faber and Faber. Nweze, C. C. (Rt. Gen.), 1990, Instruments of National Security and an Alternative Force in Ekoko, E. A. and Vogt, M. A., eds, Nigeria’s Defence Policy: Issues and Problems, Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited.
Obiozor, G. A., 1992a, Basic Issues in Nigeria’s Foreign Policy: I. B. B’s Foreign Policy Pronouncements 1988–1991, Lagos: Nigerian Institute of International Relations. Obiozor, G. A., 1992b, Nigeria Foreign Policy in Perspective: Admiral Augustus Aikhomu’s Foreign Policy Statements (1987–1992), Lagos: Nigerian Institute of International Relations.
Obiozor, G. A., 1994, The Politics of Precarious Balancing: An Analysis of Conten- ding Issues in Nigeria Domestic and Foreign Policy, Lagos: Nigerian Institute of International Relations.
Ogunade, D., 1987, Getting Our Priorities Right, The Sunday Concord, 25 January, Lagos.
Ojanen, H., 2006, The EU and Nato: Two Competing Models for a Common Defence policy, Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 44, No. 1, pp. 57–76.