6 - Choosing Heaven: Negotiating Modernity in Diverse Social Orders
Corresponding Author(s) : Olga Bialostocka
Africa Development,
Vol. 45 No. 3 (2020): Africa Development: Special Issue on African Youth and Globalisation
Abstract
Situated within the topic of geographical contexts of knowledge production, this article interrogates the youth policies of Kenya, Ghana and Tanzania to understand how they articulate the concepts of ‘tradition’ and ‘modernity’ in planning for youth development in their national socio-cultural settings. The focus is on each country’s approach to cultural transformation, in trying to divulge how the policymakers see the role of culture, both local and global, in young people’s lives, and articulate this notion in the policies to produce a politically desired alternative to Western modernity. The article goes on to discuss the extent to which ‘African modernity’ constructs are set out in these policy documents as attempts to ‘de-westernise’ the concept. It recognises Ghana’s approach as the most decolonial, for it distances the country’s cultural transformation process from the perceived universality of Western values. The article suggests that modernity, as an ‘imaginary pursuit’, becomes powerful only when one chooses to imagine it in the first place.
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- Abbink, J., 2005, ‘Being Young in Africa: The Politics of Despair and Renewal’, in J. Abbink and I. van Kessel, eds, Vanguard or Vandals, Youth, Politics and Conflict in Africa, Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 1–34.
- Aguilar, M.I., 1998a, ‘Reinventing Gada: Generational Knowledge in Boorana’, in M.I. Aguilar, ed., The Politics of Age and Gerontocracy in Africa: Ethnographies of the Past and Memories of the Present, Trenton, NJ and Asmara: Africa World Press. pp. 257–78.
- Aguilar, M.I., 1998b, ‘Gerontocratic, Aesthetic and Political Models of Age’, in M.I. Aguilar, ed., The Politics of Age and Gerontocracy in Africa: Ethnographies of the Past and Memories of the Present. Trenton, NJ and Asmara: Africa World Press. pp. 3–29.
- Alexander, J.C., 2003, The Meanings of Social Life: A Cultural Sociology, New York: Oxford University Press.
- AU (African Union), undated, Goals & Priority Areas of Agenda 2063, Available online at https://au.int/agenda2063/goals.AUC (African Union Commission), 2006, African Youth Charter. Available online at https://au.int/en/treaties/african-youth-charter.
- Baumann, G., 1999, The Multicultural Riddle. Rethinking National, Ethnic, and Religious Identities, New York: Routledge.
- Bhabha, H., 1994, The Location of Culture, New York: Routledge.
- Chilisa, B., 2012, Indigenous Research Methodologies, Washington DC: Sage Publications.
- Coles, B., 1995, Youth and Social Policy: Youth Citizenship and Young Careers, London: UCL Press.
- Collard, R.-C., Dempsey, J. and Sundberg, J., 2015, ‘A manifesto for abundant futures’, Annals of the American Association of Geographers, Vol. 105, Issue 2, pp. 322–30.
- Comaroff, J. and Comaroff, J., eds, 1993, Modernity and Its Malcontents. Ritual and Power in Postcolonial Africa, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
- Connell, R., 2007, Southern Theory, Cambridge: Polity Press.
- Davies, B., 1991, ‘The Concept of Agency: A Feminist Poststructuralist Analysis’, Social Analysis: The International Journal of Anthropology, No. 30: Postmodern Critical Theorising, pp. 42–53.
- Diouf, M., 2003, ‘Engaging Postcolonial Cultures: African Youth and Public Space’, African Studies Review, Vol. 46, No. 2, pp. 1–12.
- Durham, D., 2000, ‘Youth and the Social Imagination in Africa: Introduction to Parts 1 and 2’, Anthropological Quarterly, Vol. 73, No. 3, pp. 113–20.
- Durham, D., 2004, ‘Disappearing Youth: Youth as a Social Shifter in Botswana’, American Ethnologist, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 589–605.
- Ferguson, J., 2006, Global Shadows. Africa in the Neoliberal World Order, Durham, NC and London: Duke University Press.
- Fortes, M., 1984, ‘Age, Generation, and Social Structure’, in D.I. Kertzer and J. Keith, eds, Age and Anthropological Theory, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, pp. 99–122.
- Giddens, A., 1991, Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age, Cambridge: Polity Press.
- Gillen, P. and Ghosh, D., 2007, Colonialism and Modernity, Sydney: University of New South Wales Press.
- Ginsberg, P.E., Wanjiru Kariuki, P., and Kimamo, C., 2014, ‘The Changing Concept of Adolescence in Kenya. Three Generations Speak’, Psychological Thought, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 55–65.
- Girls Not Brides, undated, About Child Marriage. Available online at https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/child-marriage/kenya/.
- Grosfoguel, R., 2012, ‘Decolonizing Western Uni-versalisms: Decolonial Pluri-versalism from Aimé Césaire to the Zapatistas’, Transmodernity: Journal of Peripheral Cultural Production of the Luso-Hispanic World, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 88–104.
- GSS (Ghana Statistical Service), 2013, 2010 Population & Housing Census. National Analytical Report. Accra.
- Gusfield, J.R., 1967, ‘Tradition and Modernity: Misplaced Polarities in the Study of Social Change’, American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 72, No. 4, pp. 351–62.
- Gyekye, K., 1997, Tradition and Modernity: Philosophical Reflections on the African Experience,New York/ Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Honwana, A., 2012, The Time of Youth: Work, Social Change and Politics in Africa.Sterling, VA: Kumarian Press.
- Honwana, A., 2013, ‘Youth, Waithood, and Protest Movements in Africa’, African Arguments, 12 August. Available online at https://africanarguments.org/2013/08/youth-waithood-and protestmovements-in-africa-by-alcinda-honwana/.
- Honwana, A. and De Boeck, F., eds, 2005,Makers and Breakers: Children and Youth in Postcolonial Africa, Oxford/ Trenton, NJ/ Dakar: James Currey/ Africa WorldPress/ CODESRIA.
- Klouwenberg F.K. and Butter, I., 2011, ‘African “Youth” since Independence: Notes on a Bibliographic Overview, 1990–2005’, Africa Development, Vol. XXXVI, No. 3–4, pp. 55–66.
- Lall, S., 1992, Selective Industrial and Trade Policies in Developing Countries: Theoretical and Empirical Issues, University of Oxford, Queen Elizabeth House (QEH) Working Paper No. 48.
- Latour, B., 1993, We Have Never Been Modern, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- Maguire, S., 2007, Youth Mapping Study – DFID’s Approach to Young People. Available online at https://ygproject.files.wordpress.com/2010/01/dfid-youth-mapping-study_for-publication_oct-2007.pdf.
- Mbugua, S, 2018, ‘Despite New Laws, Women in Kenya Still Fight for Land Rights’, The New Humanitarian, 23 February. Available online at https://deeply.thenewhumanitarian.org/womensadvancement/articles/2018/02/23/despite-new-laws-women-in-kenya-still-fight-for-land-rights.
- McIntyre, A., 2003, ‘Rights, Root Causes and Recruitment: The Youth Factor in Africa’s Armed Conflicts’, African Security Review, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 91–9.
- Meillassoux, C., 1981, Maidens, Meal and Money: Capitalism and the Domestic Economy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Mignolo, W.D., 2000, Local Histories/Global Designs, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
- Mignolo, W.D., 2009, ‘Epistemic Disobedience, Independent Thought and De-Colonial Freedom’, Theory, Culture & Society, Vol. 26, No. 7–8, pp. 1–23. MIIY (Kenya Ministry of ICT, Innovation and Youth Affairs), 2019, Kenya Youth Development Policy. Available online at https://ict.go.ke/wp content/uploads/2020/08/Kenya-Youth-Development-Policy-2019.pdf.
- Mkandawire, T., 2005, ‘Introduction’, in T. Mkandawire, ed., African Intellectuals: Rethinking Politics, Language, Gender and Development, London/ New York: Zed Books, pp. 1–9.
- MLEYD (United Republic of Tanzania Ministry of Labour, Employment and Youth Development), 2007, National Youth Development Policy. Available online at https://www.youthpolicy.org/national/Tanzania_2007_National_Youth_Policy.pdf.
- MYS (Ghana Ministry of Youth and Sports), 2010, National Youth Policy of Ghana. Available online at https://www.youthpolicy.org/national/Ghana_2010_National_Youth_Policy.pdf.
- Nilan, P. and Feixa, C., eds, 2006, Global Youth? Hybrid Identities, Plural Worlds, Oxon: Routledge.
- Nystad, I.M.K., 2003, Mannen mellom myte og modernitet, Nesbru, Norway: Vett og Viten.
- Parsons, T., 1951, The Social System, New York: Free Press.
- Peet, R. 1999. Theories of Development, New York: Guilford Press.
- Porsanger, J., 2011, ‘The Problematisation of the Dichotomy of Modernity and Tradition in Indigenous and Sami Contexts’, Die ut, Vol. 1, pp. 225–52.
References
Abbink, J., 2005, ‘Being Young in Africa: The Politics of Despair and Renewal’, in J. Abbink and I. van Kessel, eds, Vanguard or Vandals, Youth, Politics and Conflict in Africa, Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 1–34.
Aguilar, M.I., 1998a, ‘Reinventing Gada: Generational Knowledge in Boorana’, in M.I. Aguilar, ed., The Politics of Age and Gerontocracy in Africa: Ethnographies of the Past and Memories of the Present, Trenton, NJ and Asmara: Africa World Press. pp. 257–78.
Aguilar, M.I., 1998b, ‘Gerontocratic, Aesthetic and Political Models of Age’, in M.I. Aguilar, ed., The Politics of Age and Gerontocracy in Africa: Ethnographies of the Past and Memories of the Present. Trenton, NJ and Asmara: Africa World Press. pp. 3–29.
Alexander, J.C., 2003, The Meanings of Social Life: A Cultural Sociology, New York: Oxford University Press.
AU (African Union), undated, Goals & Priority Areas of Agenda 2063, Available online at https://au.int/agenda2063/goals.AUC (African Union Commission), 2006, African Youth Charter. Available online at https://au.int/en/treaties/african-youth-charter.
Baumann, G., 1999, The Multicultural Riddle. Rethinking National, Ethnic, and Religious Identities, New York: Routledge.
Bhabha, H., 1994, The Location of Culture, New York: Routledge.
Chilisa, B., 2012, Indigenous Research Methodologies, Washington DC: Sage Publications.
Coles, B., 1995, Youth and Social Policy: Youth Citizenship and Young Careers, London: UCL Press.
Collard, R.-C., Dempsey, J. and Sundberg, J., 2015, ‘A manifesto for abundant futures’, Annals of the American Association of Geographers, Vol. 105, Issue 2, pp. 322–30.
Comaroff, J. and Comaroff, J., eds, 1993, Modernity and Its Malcontents. Ritual and Power in Postcolonial Africa, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
Connell, R., 2007, Southern Theory, Cambridge: Polity Press.
Davies, B., 1991, ‘The Concept of Agency: A Feminist Poststructuralist Analysis’, Social Analysis: The International Journal of Anthropology, No. 30: Postmodern Critical Theorising, pp. 42–53.
Diouf, M., 2003, ‘Engaging Postcolonial Cultures: African Youth and Public Space’, African Studies Review, Vol. 46, No. 2, pp. 1–12.
Durham, D., 2000, ‘Youth and the Social Imagination in Africa: Introduction to Parts 1 and 2’, Anthropological Quarterly, Vol. 73, No. 3, pp. 113–20.
Durham, D., 2004, ‘Disappearing Youth: Youth as a Social Shifter in Botswana’, American Ethnologist, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 589–605.
Ferguson, J., 2006, Global Shadows. Africa in the Neoliberal World Order, Durham, NC and London: Duke University Press.
Fortes, M., 1984, ‘Age, Generation, and Social Structure’, in D.I. Kertzer and J. Keith, eds, Age and Anthropological Theory, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, pp. 99–122.
Giddens, A., 1991, Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age, Cambridge: Polity Press.
Gillen, P. and Ghosh, D., 2007, Colonialism and Modernity, Sydney: University of New South Wales Press.
Ginsberg, P.E., Wanjiru Kariuki, P., and Kimamo, C., 2014, ‘The Changing Concept of Adolescence in Kenya. Three Generations Speak’, Psychological Thought, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 55–65.
Girls Not Brides, undated, About Child Marriage. Available online at https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/child-marriage/kenya/.
Grosfoguel, R., 2012, ‘Decolonizing Western Uni-versalisms: Decolonial Pluri-versalism from Aimé Césaire to the Zapatistas’, Transmodernity: Journal of Peripheral Cultural Production of the Luso-Hispanic World, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 88–104.
GSS (Ghana Statistical Service), 2013, 2010 Population & Housing Census. National Analytical Report. Accra.
Gusfield, J.R., 1967, ‘Tradition and Modernity: Misplaced Polarities in the Study of Social Change’, American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 72, No. 4, pp. 351–62.
Gyekye, K., 1997, Tradition and Modernity: Philosophical Reflections on the African Experience,New York/ Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Honwana, A., 2012, The Time of Youth: Work, Social Change and Politics in Africa.Sterling, VA: Kumarian Press.
Honwana, A., 2013, ‘Youth, Waithood, and Protest Movements in Africa’, African Arguments, 12 August. Available online at https://africanarguments.org/2013/08/youth-waithood-and protestmovements-in-africa-by-alcinda-honwana/.
Honwana, A. and De Boeck, F., eds, 2005,Makers and Breakers: Children and Youth in Postcolonial Africa, Oxford/ Trenton, NJ/ Dakar: James Currey/ Africa WorldPress/ CODESRIA.
Klouwenberg F.K. and Butter, I., 2011, ‘African “Youth” since Independence: Notes on a Bibliographic Overview, 1990–2005’, Africa Development, Vol. XXXVI, No. 3–4, pp. 55–66.
Lall, S., 1992, Selective Industrial and Trade Policies in Developing Countries: Theoretical and Empirical Issues, University of Oxford, Queen Elizabeth House (QEH) Working Paper No. 48.
Latour, B., 1993, We Have Never Been Modern, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Maguire, S., 2007, Youth Mapping Study – DFID’s Approach to Young People. Available online at https://ygproject.files.wordpress.com/2010/01/dfid-youth-mapping-study_for-publication_oct-2007.pdf.
Mbugua, S, 2018, ‘Despite New Laws, Women in Kenya Still Fight for Land Rights’, The New Humanitarian, 23 February. Available online at https://deeply.thenewhumanitarian.org/womensadvancement/articles/2018/02/23/despite-new-laws-women-in-kenya-still-fight-for-land-rights.
McIntyre, A., 2003, ‘Rights, Root Causes and Recruitment: The Youth Factor in Africa’s Armed Conflicts’, African Security Review, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 91–9.
Meillassoux, C., 1981, Maidens, Meal and Money: Capitalism and the Domestic Economy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mignolo, W.D., 2000, Local Histories/Global Designs, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Mignolo, W.D., 2009, ‘Epistemic Disobedience, Independent Thought and De-Colonial Freedom’, Theory, Culture & Society, Vol. 26, No. 7–8, pp. 1–23. MIIY (Kenya Ministry of ICT, Innovation and Youth Affairs), 2019, Kenya Youth Development Policy. Available online at https://ict.go.ke/wp content/uploads/2020/08/Kenya-Youth-Development-Policy-2019.pdf.
Mkandawire, T., 2005, ‘Introduction’, in T. Mkandawire, ed., African Intellectuals: Rethinking Politics, Language, Gender and Development, London/ New York: Zed Books, pp. 1–9.
MLEYD (United Republic of Tanzania Ministry of Labour, Employment and Youth Development), 2007, National Youth Development Policy. Available online at https://www.youthpolicy.org/national/Tanzania_2007_National_Youth_Policy.pdf.
MYS (Ghana Ministry of Youth and Sports), 2010, National Youth Policy of Ghana. Available online at https://www.youthpolicy.org/national/Ghana_2010_National_Youth_Policy.pdf.
Nilan, P. and Feixa, C., eds, 2006, Global Youth? Hybrid Identities, Plural Worlds, Oxon: Routledge.
Nystad, I.M.K., 2003, Mannen mellom myte og modernitet, Nesbru, Norway: Vett og Viten.
Parsons, T., 1951, The Social System, New York: Free Press.
Peet, R. 1999. Theories of Development, New York: Guilford Press.
Porsanger, J., 2011, ‘The Problematisation of the Dichotomy of Modernity and Tradition in Indigenous and Sami Contexts’, Die ut, Vol. 1, pp. 225–52.