6 - Mayi-Mayi: Young Rebels in Kivu, DRC
Corresponding Author(s) : Luca Jourdan
Africa Development,
Vol. 36 No. 3-4 (2011): Africa Development: Special Issue on ‘The Ideologies of Youth’
Abstract
Mayi-Mayi militias have played a central role in the Congo war. Mostly active in North and South Kivu, these rural militias are not a unified movement. Nevertheless, they share a nationalist ideology and a number of war rituals centered on the belief that the mayi, a specially treated water, can protect warriors from bullets. In this article, I have traced the history of these beliefs and ritual practices that are rooted in the pre- colonial and colonial periods. Far from being a symptom of regression or new-barbarism, I have tried to show that the recourse to war rituals, as well as the nationalistic discourse, were effective in compensating the lack of weapons and military organization, and in mobilizing youth in a context of state collapse. Nevertheless, most of Mayi-Mayi com- manders have proved to be opportunists and many young people have become involved in a spiral of violence that needs to be broken.
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- Abdullah, I., 2005, ‘ “I am a Rebel”. Youth Culture & Violence in Sierra Leone’, in A Honwana and F De Boeck, eds, Makers and Breakers. Children and Youth in Postcolonial Africa, Oxford: James Currey.
- Bazenguissa-Ganga, R., 1999, ‘Les Ninja, les Cobra et les Zoulou crèvent l’écran à Brazzaville: le rôle des média et la construction des identités de violence politique’, Canadian Journal of African Studies, vol. 33, pp. 2-3.
- Brett, R and Specht, I., 2004, Young Soldiers. Why They Choose to Fight, Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
- De Boeck, F., 1998, ‘Beyond the Grave: History, Memory and Death in Postcolonial Congo/Zaïre’, in R Werbner, ed., Memory and the Postcolony: African Anthropology and the critique of power, London & New York: Zed Books, pp. 21-57.
- De Waal, A. and Argenti, N., eds, 2002, Young Africa: Realising the Rights of Children and Youth, Trenton: Africa World Press.
- Diouf, M., 2003, ‘Engaging Postcolonial Cultures: African Youth and Public Space’, African Studies Review, vol. 46, no. 2.
- Honwana, A. and F. De Boeck, eds, 2005, Makers and Breakers. Children and Youth in Postcolonial Africa, Oxford: James Currey.
- Iliffe, J., 1979, A Modern History of Tanganyika, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Jewsiewicki, B., 1996, ‘Corps interdits. La représentation christique de Lumumba comme rédempteur du peuple Zaïrois’, Cahiers d’études africains, vol. 36, no. 141-142, pp. 113-142.
- Jewsiewicki, B., 1998, ‘Les traumatismes des affirmations identitaires, ou la malédiction de ne être rien’, Cahiers d’Études africaines, vol. 38, no. 150-152, pp. 215-226.
- Jewsiewicki, B., 2002, ‘The Subject in Africa: In Foucault’s Footsteps’, Public Culture, vol. 14, no. 3.
- Kabamba, B. and O. Lanotte, 1999, ‘Guerres au Congo-Zaïre (1996-1999), Acteurs et scénarios’, in P. Mathieu and J. – C. Willame, eds., Conflits et guerres au Kivu et dans la région des Grands Lacs’, Cahiers Africains, no. 39-40.
- MacClancy, J., ed, 2002, Exotic No More. Anthropology on the Front Lines, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- Mbembe, A., 2002, ‘African Modes of Self-Writing’, Public Culture, vol. 14, no. 1.
- Mbindule, Mitono C., 2000, ‘Analyse de la rébellion May-May et son impact socio-politique et économique en territoire de Lubero au Nord-Kivu’, Travail de fine de cycle, Université Catholique du Graben, année académique 1999- 2000.
- Middleton, J., 1963, ‘The Yakan or Allah Water Cult among the Lugbara’, The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 93, no. 1.
- Morvan, H., 2004, ‘Il movimento mayi-mayi a Bunyakiri’, Afriche e Orienti, no. 1-2.
- Mwaka, Bwenge A., 2003, ‘Les milices Mayi-mayi à l’Est de la Republique du Congo, Dynamique d’une de gouvernmentalité en situation de crise’, Revue Africaine de Sociologie, vol. 7, no 2.
- Ranger, T. O., 1990, ‘African Initiatives and Resistance in the Face of Partition And Conquest’, in A. Adu. Boahen, ed., General History of Africa VII. Africa under Colonial Domination 1880-1935, UNESCO.
- Richards, P., 1996, Fighting for the Rain Forest: War, Youth and Resources in Sierra Leone, Oxford: James Currey.
- United Nations, 2001, Report of the Panel of Experts on Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources and Other Forms of Wealth of the Democratic Republic of Congo, New York: United Nations Security Council, 12 April.
- Van, Acker F. and Vlassenroot, K., 2001, ‘Les ‘Maï-Maï’ et les fonctions de la violence milicienne dans l’est du Congo’, Politique africaine, vol. 84.
- Van, Acker F. and Vlassenroot, K., 2000, ‘Youth and conflict in Kivu: Komona clair’, The Journal of Humanitarian Assistance, <http://www.jha.ac/greatlakes/ b004.htm>.
- Vangu, Ngimbi I., 1997, Jeunesse, funérailles et contestation socio-politique en Afrique, L’Harmattan, Paris.
- Verhaegen, B., 1989, ‘1963-1965: d’oppositions en rébellions’, Congo Zaïre. La colonisation l’indépendance – le régime Mobutu – et demain?, Bruxelles, GRIP, pp. 89-98.
- Vlassenroot, K., 2002, ‘Violence et constitution de milices dans l’Est du Congo: le cas des Mayi-Mayi’, Annuaire 2001-2002, L’Harmattan, Paris."
References
Abdullah, I., 2005, ‘ “I am a Rebel”. Youth Culture & Violence in Sierra Leone’, in A Honwana and F De Boeck, eds, Makers and Breakers. Children and Youth in Postcolonial Africa, Oxford: James Currey.
Bazenguissa-Ganga, R., 1999, ‘Les Ninja, les Cobra et les Zoulou crèvent l’écran à Brazzaville: le rôle des média et la construction des identités de violence politique’, Canadian Journal of African Studies, vol. 33, pp. 2-3.
Brett, R and Specht, I., 2004, Young Soldiers. Why They Choose to Fight, Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
De Boeck, F., 1998, ‘Beyond the Grave: History, Memory and Death in Postcolonial Congo/Zaïre’, in R Werbner, ed., Memory and the Postcolony: African Anthropology and the critique of power, London & New York: Zed Books, pp. 21-57.
De Waal, A. and Argenti, N., eds, 2002, Young Africa: Realising the Rights of Children and Youth, Trenton: Africa World Press.
Diouf, M., 2003, ‘Engaging Postcolonial Cultures: African Youth and Public Space’, African Studies Review, vol. 46, no. 2.
Honwana, A. and F. De Boeck, eds, 2005, Makers and Breakers. Children and Youth in Postcolonial Africa, Oxford: James Currey.
Iliffe, J., 1979, A Modern History of Tanganyika, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jewsiewicki, B., 1996, ‘Corps interdits. La représentation christique de Lumumba comme rédempteur du peuple Zaïrois’, Cahiers d’études africains, vol. 36, no. 141-142, pp. 113-142.
Jewsiewicki, B., 1998, ‘Les traumatismes des affirmations identitaires, ou la malédiction de ne être rien’, Cahiers d’Études africaines, vol. 38, no. 150-152, pp. 215-226.
Jewsiewicki, B., 2002, ‘The Subject in Africa: In Foucault’s Footsteps’, Public Culture, vol. 14, no. 3.
Kabamba, B. and O. Lanotte, 1999, ‘Guerres au Congo-Zaïre (1996-1999), Acteurs et scénarios’, in P. Mathieu and J. – C. Willame, eds., Conflits et guerres au Kivu et dans la région des Grands Lacs’, Cahiers Africains, no. 39-40.
MacClancy, J., ed, 2002, Exotic No More. Anthropology on the Front Lines, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Mbembe, A., 2002, ‘African Modes of Self-Writing’, Public Culture, vol. 14, no. 1.
Mbindule, Mitono C., 2000, ‘Analyse de la rébellion May-May et son impact socio-politique et économique en territoire de Lubero au Nord-Kivu’, Travail de fine de cycle, Université Catholique du Graben, année académique 1999- 2000.
Middleton, J., 1963, ‘The Yakan or Allah Water Cult among the Lugbara’, The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 93, no. 1.
Morvan, H., 2004, ‘Il movimento mayi-mayi a Bunyakiri’, Afriche e Orienti, no. 1-2.
Mwaka, Bwenge A., 2003, ‘Les milices Mayi-mayi à l’Est de la Republique du Congo, Dynamique d’une de gouvernmentalité en situation de crise’, Revue Africaine de Sociologie, vol. 7, no 2.
Ranger, T. O., 1990, ‘African Initiatives and Resistance in the Face of Partition And Conquest’, in A. Adu. Boahen, ed., General History of Africa VII. Africa under Colonial Domination 1880-1935, UNESCO.
Richards, P., 1996, Fighting for the Rain Forest: War, Youth and Resources in Sierra Leone, Oxford: James Currey.
United Nations, 2001, Report of the Panel of Experts on Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources and Other Forms of Wealth of the Democratic Republic of Congo, New York: United Nations Security Council, 12 April.
Van, Acker F. and Vlassenroot, K., 2001, ‘Les ‘Maï-Maï’ et les fonctions de la violence milicienne dans l’est du Congo’, Politique africaine, vol. 84.
Van, Acker F. and Vlassenroot, K., 2000, ‘Youth and conflict in Kivu: Komona clair’, The Journal of Humanitarian Assistance, <http://www.jha.ac/greatlakes/ b004.htm>.
Vangu, Ngimbi I., 1997, Jeunesse, funérailles et contestation socio-politique en Afrique, L’Harmattan, Paris.
Verhaegen, B., 1989, ‘1963-1965: d’oppositions en rébellions’, Congo Zaïre. La colonisation l’indépendance – le régime Mobutu – et demain?, Bruxelles, GRIP, pp. 89-98.
Vlassenroot, K., 2002, ‘Violence et constitution de milices dans l’Est du Congo: le cas des Mayi-Mayi’, Annuaire 2001-2002, L’Harmattan, Paris."