3 - The Impact of Structural Violence on Women’s Capacity to Fully Participate at Candidate and Electoral Management Levels in Zimbabwe
Corresponding Author(s) : Rosalie Katsande
Afrique et développement,
Vol. 48 No 3 (2023): Afrique et développement
Résumé
Cet article porte sur la violence institutionnelle « cachée », également connue sous le nom de violence structurelle, et les divisions entre les sexes dans les processus électoraux au Zimbabwe. La violence structurelle se produit lorsqu’une catégorie de personnes se voit accorder un statut différent de celui d’autres catégories de personnes. L’argument principal présenté dans le document est qu’au Zimbabwe, la violence structurelle rend inopérante la mise en œuvre de l’égalité des sexes dans la gouvernance électorale. Les structures et les partis politiques sont conçus et opportunément utilisés pour exclure les femmes de la participation politique. Le document analyse une sélection de cas de participation des femmes tant dans les candidatures que dans la gestion électorale. Comme principales méthodes de collecte de données, l’étude a utilisé des entretiens, en particulier avec des informateurs clés, et des entretiens semi-structurés. Des discussions de groupe ont également été mises à contribution. Les résultats ont révélé qu’une myriade de contraintes structurelles et institutionnalisées empêchent les femmes au Zimbabwe de participer pleinement aux processus politiques et électoraux. Ces structures institutionnalisées ont un impact négatif disproportionné sur les ambitions politiques quand on les compare à celles des hommes. Le document conclut que la promotion de l’égalité des sexes dans le domaine de la politique et des instances décisionnelles ainsi que dans la société dans son ensemble est un processus long et complexe. Toute initiative visant à remédier à ces inégalités doit être stratégique et orientée dans le long terme.
Mots-clés
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- Dilts, A., 2012, Revisiting Johan Galtung’s Concept of Structural Violence, New Political Science, Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 191–194. DOI: 10.1080/07393148.2012.676396.
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- IFES, 2018, Violence Against Women in Elections in Zimbabwe: An IFES Assessment. Available online at https://www.ifes.org/sites/default/files/vawiein_zimbabwe_july_2018.pdf. Accessed 20 March 2020.
- International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA). Available online at https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotas/quotas. Accessed 28 May 2020.
- Kayuni, H.M., and Chikadza, K.F., 2016, The Gatekeepers: Political Participation Of Women In Malawi, CMI. Available online at https://www.cmi.no/publications/5929-gatekeepers-political-participation-women-malawi. Accessed 20 March 2020.
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- Ossome, L., 2013, Locating Kenyan Media in Anti-Rape Discourse: A Feminist Critique, Africa Media Review, Vol. 21, No. 1–2, pp. 109–133.
- Ouedraogo, R., and Ouedraogo, I., 2019, Gender Equality and Electoral Violence in Africa: Unlocking the Peacemaking Potential of Women, IMF Working Paper African Department. Available online at wpiea2019174-print-pdf. Accessed 15 September 2020.
- Pogoson, I., 2012, Gender, Political Parties and the Reproduction of Patriarchy in Nigeria: A Reflection on the Democratisation Process, 1999-–2011, Journal of African Elections, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 100–122.
- Radu, S., 2018, Women Still A Rare Part Of World’’s Parliaments, U.S. News & World Report, 4 September. Available online at https://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/articles/2018-09-04/women-are-still-underrepresented-in- parliaments-around-the-world. Accessed 22 April 2020.
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- Rodgers, D. and O’Neill, B., 2012, Infrastructural Violence: Introduction to Special Issue, Ethnography, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 401–412.
- Rowson, M., 2012, Violence and Development, in Medical Peace Work Course 4: Structural Violence And The Underlying Causes Of Violent Conflict. Available online at http://www.medicalpeacework.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ebooks/mpw_course4_2012.pdf. Accessed 2 March 2020.
- Rwanda’s Constitution of 2003 with Amendments through 2015. Available online at http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/rwa128551.pdf. Accessed 28 March 2020.
- Scheper-Hughes, N., and Bourgois, P., 2004, Introduction: Making Sense of Violence, in Scheper-Hughes, N., and Bourgois, P., eds, 2003, Violence in War and Peace: An Anthology, Oxford: Blackwell. Available online at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303148300_Introduction_Making_sense_of_violence. Accessed 4 March 2020.
- Sidney, V., Schlozman, K.L., and Brady, H.E., 1995, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- Thomas, S., 1994, How Women Legislate, New York: Oxford University Press.
- United Nations (UN), 2007, Report of the Online discussion on Women, political participation and decision-making in Africa, p. 4. Available online at https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/TechnicalCooperation/docs/Online%20Discussion%20Report%20Africa%20FINAL.pdf. Accessed 28 May 2020.
- Winter, Y., 2012, Violence and Visibility, New Political Science, Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 195–202. Available online at http://www.sceat.net/uploads/1/1/0/0/11009771/revisiting_galtungs_struc_violence.pdf. Accessed 4 March 2020.
- Zengenene, M. and Susanti, E., 2019, ‘Violence against Women and Girls in Harare, Zimbabwe’, Journal of International Women’’s Studies, Vol. 20, No. 9,
- pp. 83–93. Available online at https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol20/iss9/8. Accessed 30 August 2020.
- Zimbabwe Election Support Network (ZESN), 2018, Report on the 30 July 2018 Harmonised Elections. Available online at https://www.zesn.org.zw/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Final-ZESN-2018-Harmonised-Election-Report.pdf.
- Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum, 2014, Structural Violence and Organised Violence and Torture In Zimbabwe: A special paper, Harare: Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum. Available online at http://www.hrforumzim.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Structural-Violence-Organised-Violence-Book.pdf. 5 March 2020.
Les références
Ballington, J., ed., 2004, IDEA: The Implementation of Quotas: African Experiences Quota Report Series, Available online at https://www.idea.int/sites/default/files/publications/implementation-of-quotas-african-experiences.pdf. Accessed 28 May 2020.
Bardall, G.B., 2018, Contentious Politics and Political Violence, Groups and Identities, Political Behavior, Oxford Research Encyclopaedia of Politics. Available online at DOI: 10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.208. Accessed 15 September 2020.
Benztzon, A.W., Hellum, A., and Ncube, W., 1998, Pursuing Grounded Theory In Law: South–North Experiences In Developing Women’s Law, Harare and Oslo: Tano-Aschehong and Mond Books.
Brechenmacher, S., 2017, Fighting Violence Against Women In Politics: The Limits of Legal Reform, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Available online at https://carnegieendowment.org/2017/10/05/fighting-violence-against-women- in-politics-limits-of-legal-reform-pub-73339. Accessed 22 April 2020.
Cheeseman, N., and Dodsworth, S., 2019, Why African Democracies Are Failing Women—And What We Can Do To Fix It, Mail & Guardian, 8 March. Available online at https://mg.co.za/article/2019-03-08-00-why-african-democracies-are-failing-women-and-what-we-can-do-to-fix-it/. Accessed 20 March 2020.
Dahlerup, D., 2005, ‘Increasing Women’s Political Representation: New Trends in Gender Quotas’, in Ballington, J. and Karam, A., eds, Women in Parliament: Beyond Numbers, Stockholm: IDEA, pp. 141–153.
Dilts, A., 2012, Revisiting Johan Galtung’s Concept of Structural Violence, New Political Science, Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 191–194. DOI: 10.1080/07393148.2012.676396.
Galtung, J., 1969, Violence, Peace, and Peace Research, Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 167–191. Available online at https://theasiadialogue.com/wpcontent/uploads/2017/10/Galtung_Violence20Peace20and20Peace20Research.pdf. Accessed 2 March 2020.
George, R., 2019, Gender Norms And Women’s Political Participation: Global Trends And Findings On Norm Change, ALiGN, 7 February. Available online at https://www.alignplatform.org/resources/gender-norms-and-womens-political-participation-global-trends-and-findings-norm-change. Accessed 13 April 2020. Gilman, R., 1983, Structural Violence: Can We Find Genuine Peace In A World With Inequitable Distribution Of Wealth Among Nations?, Context Institute. Available online at https://www.context.org/iclib/ic04/gilman1/. Accessed 6 March 2020.
Ho, K., 2007, Structural Violence as a Human Rights Violation, Essex Human Rights Review, Vol. 4, No. 2. Available online at http://projects.essex.ac.uk/ehrr/V4N2/ ho.pdf. Accessed 10 March 2020.
IFES, 2018, Violence Against Women in Elections in Zimbabwe: An IFES Assessment. Available online at https://www.ifes.org/sites/default/files/vawiein_zimbabwe_july_2018.pdf. Accessed 20 March 2020.
International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA). Available online at https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotas/quotas. Accessed 28 May 2020.
Kayuni, H.M., and Chikadza, K.F., 2016, The Gatekeepers: Political Participation Of Women In Malawi, CMI. Available online at https://www.cmi.no/publications/5929-gatekeepers-political-participation-women-malawi. Accessed 20 March 2020.
Machipisa, L., 1999, Zimbabwe: Women Excluded From Top Posts In Ruling Party, Inter Press Service, 18 December. Available online at http://www.ipsnews.net/1999/12/politics-zimbabwe-women-excluded-from-top-posts-in-ruling- party/. Accessed 5 March 2020.
Maposa, M., Tshuma, N., and Ncube, G., 2015, ‘Participation of Women in Zimbabwean Politics and the Mirage of Gender Equity’, Ubuntu: Journal of Conflict and Transformation, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 127–159. Available online at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314368303. Accessed 5 March 2020.
Mlambo, C., Kapingura, F., and Meissner, R., 2019, Factors Influencing Women Political Participation: The Case Of The SADC Region, Cogent Social Sciences, Vol. 5, No. 1. Available online at https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2019.1681048. Accessed 19 April 2020.
National Democratic Institute for International Affairs (NDI), 2007, Women’s Caucus Fact Sheet. Available online at https://www.iknowpolitics.org/en/learn/knowledge-resources/guide-training-material/women%E2%80%99s-caucus- fact-sheet. Accessed 28 May 2020.
Ossome, L., 2013, Locating Kenyan Media in Anti-Rape Discourse: A Feminist Critique, Africa Media Review, Vol. 21, No. 1–2, pp. 109–133.
Ouedraogo, R., and Ouedraogo, I., 2019, Gender Equality and Electoral Violence in Africa: Unlocking the Peacemaking Potential of Women, IMF Working Paper African Department. Available online at wpiea2019174-print-pdf. Accessed 15 September 2020.
Pogoson, I., 2012, Gender, Political Parties and the Reproduction of Patriarchy in Nigeria: A Reflection on the Democratisation Process, 1999-–2011, Journal of African Elections, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 100–122.
Radu, S., 2018, Women Still A Rare Part Of World’’s Parliaments, U.S. News & World Report, 4 September. Available online at https://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/articles/2018-09-04/women-are-still-underrepresented-in- parliaments-around-the-world. Accessed 22 April 2020.
Reuters, 2014, Robert Mugabe Accuses Joice Mujuru Of Plot To Unseat Him, The Telegraph, 3 December. Available online at https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/zimbabwe/11270202/Robert-Mugabe-accuses-Joice-Mujuru-of-plot-to-unseat-him.html. Accessed 3 March 2020.
Rodgers, D. and O’Neill, B., 2012, Infrastructural Violence: Introduction to Special Issue, Ethnography, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 401–412.
Rowson, M., 2012, Violence and Development, in Medical Peace Work Course 4: Structural Violence And The Underlying Causes Of Violent Conflict. Available online at http://www.medicalpeacework.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ebooks/mpw_course4_2012.pdf. Accessed 2 March 2020.
Rwanda’s Constitution of 2003 with Amendments through 2015. Available online at http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/rwa128551.pdf. Accessed 28 March 2020.
Scheper-Hughes, N., and Bourgois, P., 2004, Introduction: Making Sense of Violence, in Scheper-Hughes, N., and Bourgois, P., eds, 2003, Violence in War and Peace: An Anthology, Oxford: Blackwell. Available online at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303148300_Introduction_Making_sense_of_violence. Accessed 4 March 2020.
Sidney, V., Schlozman, K.L., and Brady, H.E., 1995, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Thomas, S., 1994, How Women Legislate, New York: Oxford University Press.
United Nations (UN), 2007, Report of the Online discussion on Women, political participation and decision-making in Africa, p. 4. Available online at https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/TechnicalCooperation/docs/Online%20Discussion%20Report%20Africa%20FINAL.pdf. Accessed 28 May 2020.
Winter, Y., 2012, Violence and Visibility, New Political Science, Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 195–202. Available online at http://www.sceat.net/uploads/1/1/0/0/11009771/revisiting_galtungs_struc_violence.pdf. Accessed 4 March 2020.
Zengenene, M. and Susanti, E., 2019, ‘Violence against Women and Girls in Harare, Zimbabwe’, Journal of International Women’’s Studies, Vol. 20, No. 9,
pp. 83–93. Available online at https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol20/iss9/8. Accessed 30 August 2020.
Zimbabwe Election Support Network (ZESN), 2018, Report on the 30 July 2018 Harmonised Elections. Available online at https://www.zesn.org.zw/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Final-ZESN-2018-Harmonised-Election-Report.pdf.
Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum, 2014, Structural Violence and Organised Violence and Torture In Zimbabwe: A special paper, Harare: Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum. Available online at http://www.hrforumzim.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Structural-Violence-Organised-Violence-Book.pdf. 5 March 2020.