1 - Reconnecting African Sociology to the Mother: Towards a Woman-centred Endogenous Sociology in South Africa
Corresponding Author(s) : Babalwa Magoqwana
African Sociological Review,
Vol. 24 No. 2 (2020): African Sociological Review
Abstract
This paper seeks to respond to the call by Castells (2000) for more practical application of Sociology of the 21st Century, taking into consideration the societies it exists in and the contexts in which they are created. Its primary focus is the challenges that face African Sociology in the 21st Century. It builds on Adesina’s (2006a) ‘epistemic interventions’ by centring Isintu (Indigenous languages in South Africa), languages and matriarchal knowledge histories in the African continent.
The paper makes use of one of the most enduring African knowledge institution – uMakhulu (the elder mother/grandmother), to argue for the potential reconnections of the African Sociology to its society and the context this institution is embedded in. In pivoting around the elder mother in African Sociology, the paper introduces a “matrifocal’’ sociological understanding of the discipline, shifting the centralising of ‘fathers of the discipline’. The rationale is that in decentralising the hegemonic body of the discipline (‘the father’), the ‘bio-logic’ of the sociological discipline in Africa will be destabilised, thus, developing a sociological narrative that ventures beyond the binaries. The paper explores and integrates the language and values carried by African grandmothers in dealing with socio-political and economic challenges of their societies.
Keywords
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- Adesina, J.O. 2002. ‘Sociology and the Yoruba Studies: Epistemic Intervention or Doing Sociology in the Vernacular? African Sociological Review. 6 (1) Pp. 91-114
- Adesina, J.O. 2005. ‘Realising the Vision: The Discursive and Institutional Challenges of Becoming an African University’. Africa Sociological Review. 9 (1) PP. 23-39 Adesina, J.O. 2006 (a). ‘Sociology Beyond Despair: Recovery of Nerve, Endogeneity, and
- Epistemic Intervention’. South African Review of Sociology. 37 (2) Pp. 241-249 Adesina, J.O. 2006 (b). ‘Sociology, Endogeneity and the
- Challenge of Transformation’.African Sociological Review. 10 (2) Pp. 133-150
- Adesina, J.O. 2010. ‘Re-appropriating Matrifocality: Endogeneity and African Gender Scholarship’. African Sociological Review. 14 (1) Pp. 2-19’. Dissent. Pp. 319- 325
- Aidoo,Alatas, S.H. 2000. ‘Intellectual Imperialism: Definition, Traits, and Problems.’ Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science 28 (1) Pp.23–45.
- Amadiume, I.1987. Male Daughters, Female Husbands: Gender and Sex in an African Society. London: Zed Books.
- Amadiume, I.1997. Re-inventing Africa: Matriarchy, Religion and Culture. Zed Books. Badat, S 2009. ‘Theorising Institutional Change: post-1994 South African Higher Education’. Studies in Higher Education. 34 (4) Pp. 455-467.
- Bakare-Yusuf, B. 2004. ‘Yorubas don’t do gender’: A Critical Review of Oyeronke Oyewumi’s. The Invention of Woman’ African Gender Scholarship. 61, 81.
- Bhambra, G.K. 2011. ‘Talking among Themselves? Weberian and Marxist Historical Sociologies as Dialogues without ‘Others’. Millennium: Journal of International Studies 39 (3) Pp. 667–681
- Bourdieu, P. and Wacquant, L. 1999. ‘On Cunnings of Imperialist Reason’. Theory, Culture and Society. 16 (1) Pp 41-58
- Carrol, K.K. 2014. ‘An Introduction to Africa-Centred Sociology: Worldview, Epistemology, and Social Theory’. Critical Sociology. 40 (2) Pp 257-270
- Castells, M. 2000. ‘Toward a Sociology of the Network Society’. Contemporary Sociology.29 (5) Pp. 693-699
- Chinyama, N. 2017. “Finding Spirit in the Work- Ukuthwasa”. Feminist Africa, Issue 22 Pp. 111-118
- Decadence of Sociology. United Kingdom, Lexington Books Epistemic Intervention’. South African Review of Sociology. 37 (2): Pp. 241-259 Department of Higher Education and Training. 2018. Annual Report 2018/19. Pretoria, South Africa https://www.dhet.gov.za/Commissions%20Reports/DHET%20Annual%20Report%20%202017_18%20.pdf
- Diop, C.A. 1991. Civilisation or Barbarism: An Authentic anthropology. Brooklyn. New York, Lawrence hill.
- Dubbeld B. 2009. ‘Marx, labour and emancipation in South African Sociology: A Preliminary Rethinking’. Social Dynamics. 35 (2) Pp. 215–230
- Gasa, N. 2007. Women in South African History. Cape Town, HSRC Press
- Guy, J. 1990. ‘Gender Oppression in Pre-colonial Southern Africa’. In Walker, C. Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945. Cape Town: James Currey
- Hassim, S. 2019. ‘The Impossible Contract: The Political and Private Marriage of Nelson and Winnie
- Mandela’. Journal of Southern African Studies. 45 (6) Pp. 1151-1171 Hendricks F (2006) ‘The rise and fall of South African Sociology’. African Sociological Review 10 (1) Pp. 86–97Hountondji, P. 1990. ‘Scientific Dependence in Africa
- Today’. Research in African Literature. 21 (3) Pp. 5-15
- Jubber K (1983) ‘Sociology and its Sociological Context: The case of the rise of Marxist uth Africa’. Social Dynamics. 9 (2) Pp. 50–63
- Khondlo, K. 2015.‘Meaning and Significance of Conscience and Consciousness in Public Leadership in the Post-1994 South Africa’. Journal of Public Administration. Vol. 50 (3) Pp. 485-495
- Mabokela, R.O. 2000. ‘We cannot Find Qualified Blacks’: Faculty Diversification Programmes at South African Universities. Comparative Education. 36 (1) Pp. 95-112
- Mafeje, A. 1967. ‘The Role of the Bard in a Contemporary African Community.‘ Journal of African Languages, 6(3) Pp. 193-223.
- Mafeje, A. 1991. The Theory and Ethnography of African Social Formations: the Cases of the Interlacustrine Kingdoms. Dakar/London, CODESRIA Books Series
- Magona, S. 1990. To my children’s Children. Cape Town, David Phillip Publishers Magoqwana, B. 2018. ‘Repositioning uMakhulu as an Institution of Knowledge: Beyond‘Biologism’ towards uMakhulu as the Body of Indigenous Knowledge’. in Bam, J, Ntsebeza, L, Zinn, A
- (eds). Whose History Counts: Decolonising African Pre- colonial Historiography. African Sun Media.
- Magubane, B. [1968] 2000. ‘Crisis in African Sociology’. In Magubane, B.M. African Sociology- Towards A Critical Perspective: The Collected Essays of Bernard Makhosezwe Magubane. Trenton, NJ. Africa World Press
- Magubane, Z. 2010 ‘Attitudes about Feminism Among Women in the ANC 1950- 1990: A Theoretical Re-interpretation’ in SADET (South African Democracy Trust) (ed) Road To Democracy Volume 4 (1980-1990). UNISA Press, South Africa
- Mapadimeng, M.S. 2012. ‘Sociology and Inequalities in Post-Apartheid South Africa.A Critical Review’. Current Sociology. 61 (1) Pp. 40-56
- Maseko, P. 2018. ‘Language as a Source of Revitalisation and Reclamation of Indigenous Epistemologies: Contesting Assumptions and Re-Imagining Women Identities in (African) Xhosa Society’. In Bam, J, Ntsebeza, L, Zinn, A (eds). Whose History Counts: Decolonising African Pre-colonial Historiography. African Sun Media.
- Means, R. 2011. ‘Patriarchy: The Ultimate Conspiracy, Matriarchy: The Ultimate Solution’ Griffith Law Review, 20 (3) 515-525
- Mfecane, 2018. (Un)Knowing Men: Africanising Gender Justice Programmes for Men in South Africa. Centre for Sexualities, AIDS and Gender Publishers. University of Pretoria, South Africa
- Mies, M. 1986. Patriarchy & Accumulation on World Scale: women in the international division of labour. New York and London, Zed Books
- Mies, M. and Shiva, V.[1993] 2014. Eco-Feminism- Foreword by Ariel Salleh. Zed Book Mills, C.W. 1959. The Sociological Imagination. New York, Oxford Press
- Mkhize, N. 2018. ‘The Missing Idiom of African Historiography: African Historical Writing in Walter Rubusana’s Zemnk’inkomo Maagwalandini’. in Bam, J, A (eds). Whose History Counts: Decolonising African Precolonial Historiography. African Sun Media.
- asa: (Being a SynMqotsi, drome recognised by the Xhosa as a qualification to being initiated as a doctor). Iqula Publishing.
- Ndayi, V. and Du Plooy, B. 2019.‘Gendered differences in the representation of men’s and women’s relationship to marriage and childbearing in business and economic contexts: A reading of the South African television soap opera Generations: The Legacy’. Agenda. (33) 4. Pp. 111-121
- Ngubane, H. 1977. Body and Mind: An Ethnography of health and Disease in Nyuswa- Zulu thought and Practice. London and New York, Academic Press
- Ntantala, P. 1958 [1960]. ‘Widows of the Reserve’. An African Treasury: Articles, Essays, Stories, Poems. New York: Crown Publishers
- Ntuli, P. 2002. ‘African Knowledge Systems and African Renaissance’. In Hoppers,C.A. (ed) Indigenous Knowledge and Integration of Knowledge Systems: Towards a Philosophy of Articulation. Claremont, South Africa. New Africa Education
- Nyamnjoh, F. 2012. ‘Potted Plants in Greenhouses: A Critical Reflection on the Resilience of Colonial Education in Africa’. Journal of Asian and African Studies. 0 (0) Pp 1-26
- Nyoka, B. 2013. ‘Negation and Affirmation: A Critique of Sociology in South Africa’.African Sociological Review. 17 (1) Pp. 2-24
- Nzegwu, N. 2005. ‘Questions of Identity and Inheritance: A Critical Review of Kwame Anthony Appiah’s In My Father’s House’ In Oyewumi. O. (ed) African Gender Studies: A Reader. New York. Palgrave MacMillan
- Oyewumi. O. 1997. The Invention of Women: Making African Senses of Western Gender Discourses. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press
- Oyewumi. O. 2005. ‘Visualizing Visualising the Body: Western Theories and African Subjects’. In Oyewumi. O. (ed) African Gender Studies: A Reader. New York. Palgrave MacMillan
- Oyewumi. O. 2015. What Gender is Motherhood? Changing Yoruba Ideals of Power, Procreation and Identity in the Age of Modernity. Palgrave MacMillan
- Rabe, M. and Rugunanan, P. 2012. ‘Exploring Gender and Race among Female Sociologists Exiting Academia in South Africa’. Gender and Education. 24 (5) Pp. 553-566
- Ramose, M. 2015. ‘Ecology through Ubuntu’ in Meinhold, R. (Ed) Environmental Values Emerging from Cultures and Religions of the ASEAN Region. Guna Chakra Research Center, Graduate School of Philosophy & Religion, Assumption University
- Romero, P. 2015. African Women: A Historical Panorama. Marcus Wiener Publishers, Princeton
- Shiva, V. 1988. Staying Alive: Women, Ecology and Survival in India. New Delhi/London, d Books
- Sisulu, E. 2002. Walter and Albertina Sisulu: In Our Lifetime. Cape Town, David Philip Publishers
- Sitas A. 1997. The waning of sociology in South Africa. Society in Transition 28 (1–4) Pp. 12–19
- Sitas, A. 2014. ‘Rethinking Africa’s Sociological Project’. Current Sociology. 62 (4) Pp 457-471
- Steady, F. C. 2011. Women and Leadership in West Africa: Mothering the Nation and Humanizing Humanising the State. Palgrave, MacMillan
- Tisani, N. 2000. Continuity and Change in Xhosa Historiography During the Nineteenth Century: An Exploration through Textual Analysis. Unpublished PhD Dissertation. Grahamstown, Rhodes University
- Tisani, N. 2017. ‘Re-visiting and Celebrating our Literary Elders to build a Multiversal Tomorrow’. Paper Presented at Rhodes University Colloquium- Rethinking South African Canonical Writing: Centring the isiXhosa Writings of the 19th and Early 20th Centuries. 21-22 June
- Tisani, N. 2018. “Of Definitions and Naming: ‘I am the earth itself. God made me a chief on the very first day of creation’ “in Bam, J, Ntsebeza, L, Zinn, A (eds). Whose History Counts: Decolonising African Pre-colonial Historiography. African Sun Media.
- Tisani, N. 2020. A Fortuitous Appearance in History of the Enigmatic Nosuthu MaMtshawe Jotelo, a Nineteenth Century siXhosa Speaking Woman. Paper Presented in Nelson Mandela University Colloquium, 28-29 August 2020
- Tlali, M. 1989. Footprints in the Quag: Stories and Dialogues from Soweto. With an Introduction by Lauretta Ngcobo. Cape Town, David Philip Publishers
- Vilakazi, H. 2002. ‘The Problem of African Universities’. In Makgoba, M.W. (ed)African Renaissance: The New Struggle. Tafelberg, Mafube Publishers.
- Walker, C. (ed) 1990. Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945. Cape Town: James Currey
- Webster E. 1985. ‘Competing paradigms: Towards a critical sociology in Southernocial Dynamics 11(1) Pp. 44–48
References
Adesina, J.O. 2002. ‘Sociology and the Yoruba Studies: Epistemic Intervention or Doing Sociology in the Vernacular? African Sociological Review. 6 (1) Pp. 91-114
Adesina, J.O. 2005. ‘Realising the Vision: The Discursive and Institutional Challenges of Becoming an African University’. Africa Sociological Review. 9 (1) PP. 23-39 Adesina, J.O. 2006 (a). ‘Sociology Beyond Despair: Recovery of Nerve, Endogeneity, and
Epistemic Intervention’. South African Review of Sociology. 37 (2) Pp. 241-249 Adesina, J.O. 2006 (b). ‘Sociology, Endogeneity and the
Challenge of Transformation’.African Sociological Review. 10 (2) Pp. 133-150
Adesina, J.O. 2010. ‘Re-appropriating Matrifocality: Endogeneity and African Gender Scholarship’. African Sociological Review. 14 (1) Pp. 2-19’. Dissent. Pp. 319- 325
Aidoo,Alatas, S.H. 2000. ‘Intellectual Imperialism: Definition, Traits, and Problems.’ Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science 28 (1) Pp.23–45.
Amadiume, I.1987. Male Daughters, Female Husbands: Gender and Sex in an African Society. London: Zed Books.
Amadiume, I.1997. Re-inventing Africa: Matriarchy, Religion and Culture. Zed Books. Badat, S 2009. ‘Theorising Institutional Change: post-1994 South African Higher Education’. Studies in Higher Education. 34 (4) Pp. 455-467.
Bakare-Yusuf, B. 2004. ‘Yorubas don’t do gender’: A Critical Review of Oyeronke Oyewumi’s. The Invention of Woman’ African Gender Scholarship. 61, 81.
Bhambra, G.K. 2011. ‘Talking among Themselves? Weberian and Marxist Historical Sociologies as Dialogues without ‘Others’. Millennium: Journal of International Studies 39 (3) Pp. 667–681
Bourdieu, P. and Wacquant, L. 1999. ‘On Cunnings of Imperialist Reason’. Theory, Culture and Society. 16 (1) Pp 41-58
Carrol, K.K. 2014. ‘An Introduction to Africa-Centred Sociology: Worldview, Epistemology, and Social Theory’. Critical Sociology. 40 (2) Pp 257-270
Castells, M. 2000. ‘Toward a Sociology of the Network Society’. Contemporary Sociology.29 (5) Pp. 693-699
Chinyama, N. 2017. “Finding Spirit in the Work- Ukuthwasa”. Feminist Africa, Issue 22 Pp. 111-118
Decadence of Sociology. United Kingdom, Lexington Books Epistemic Intervention’. South African Review of Sociology. 37 (2): Pp. 241-259 Department of Higher Education and Training. 2018. Annual Report 2018/19. Pretoria, South Africa https://www.dhet.gov.za/Commissions%20Reports/DHET%20Annual%20Report%20%202017_18%20.pdf
Diop, C.A. 1991. Civilisation or Barbarism: An Authentic anthropology. Brooklyn. New York, Lawrence hill.
Dubbeld B. 2009. ‘Marx, labour and emancipation in South African Sociology: A Preliminary Rethinking’. Social Dynamics. 35 (2) Pp. 215–230
Gasa, N. 2007. Women in South African History. Cape Town, HSRC Press
Guy, J. 1990. ‘Gender Oppression in Pre-colonial Southern Africa’. In Walker, C. Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945. Cape Town: James Currey
Hassim, S. 2019. ‘The Impossible Contract: The Political and Private Marriage of Nelson and Winnie
Mandela’. Journal of Southern African Studies. 45 (6) Pp. 1151-1171 Hendricks F (2006) ‘The rise and fall of South African Sociology’. African Sociological Review 10 (1) Pp. 86–97Hountondji, P. 1990. ‘Scientific Dependence in Africa
Today’. Research in African Literature. 21 (3) Pp. 5-15
Jubber K (1983) ‘Sociology and its Sociological Context: The case of the rise of Marxist uth Africa’. Social Dynamics. 9 (2) Pp. 50–63
Khondlo, K. 2015.‘Meaning and Significance of Conscience and Consciousness in Public Leadership in the Post-1994 South Africa’. Journal of Public Administration. Vol. 50 (3) Pp. 485-495
Mabokela, R.O. 2000. ‘We cannot Find Qualified Blacks’: Faculty Diversification Programmes at South African Universities. Comparative Education. 36 (1) Pp. 95-112
Mafeje, A. 1967. ‘The Role of the Bard in a Contemporary African Community.‘ Journal of African Languages, 6(3) Pp. 193-223.
Mafeje, A. 1991. The Theory and Ethnography of African Social Formations: the Cases of the Interlacustrine Kingdoms. Dakar/London, CODESRIA Books Series
Magona, S. 1990. To my children’s Children. Cape Town, David Phillip Publishers Magoqwana, B. 2018. ‘Repositioning uMakhulu as an Institution of Knowledge: Beyond‘Biologism’ towards uMakhulu as the Body of Indigenous Knowledge’. in Bam, J, Ntsebeza, L, Zinn, A
(eds). Whose History Counts: Decolonising African Pre- colonial Historiography. African Sun Media.
Magubane, B. [1968] 2000. ‘Crisis in African Sociology’. In Magubane, B.M. African Sociology- Towards A Critical Perspective: The Collected Essays of Bernard Makhosezwe Magubane. Trenton, NJ. Africa World Press
Magubane, Z. 2010 ‘Attitudes about Feminism Among Women in the ANC 1950- 1990: A Theoretical Re-interpretation’ in SADET (South African Democracy Trust) (ed) Road To Democracy Volume 4 (1980-1990). UNISA Press, South Africa
Mapadimeng, M.S. 2012. ‘Sociology and Inequalities in Post-Apartheid South Africa.A Critical Review’. Current Sociology. 61 (1) Pp. 40-56
Maseko, P. 2018. ‘Language as a Source of Revitalisation and Reclamation of Indigenous Epistemologies: Contesting Assumptions and Re-Imagining Women Identities in (African) Xhosa Society’. In Bam, J, Ntsebeza, L, Zinn, A (eds). Whose History Counts: Decolonising African Pre-colonial Historiography. African Sun Media.
Means, R. 2011. ‘Patriarchy: The Ultimate Conspiracy, Matriarchy: The Ultimate Solution’ Griffith Law Review, 20 (3) 515-525
Mfecane, 2018. (Un)Knowing Men: Africanising Gender Justice Programmes for Men in South Africa. Centre for Sexualities, AIDS and Gender Publishers. University of Pretoria, South Africa
Mies, M. 1986. Patriarchy & Accumulation on World Scale: women in the international division of labour. New York and London, Zed Books
Mies, M. and Shiva, V.[1993] 2014. Eco-Feminism- Foreword by Ariel Salleh. Zed Book Mills, C.W. 1959. The Sociological Imagination. New York, Oxford Press
Mkhize, N. 2018. ‘The Missing Idiom of African Historiography: African Historical Writing in Walter Rubusana’s Zemnk’inkomo Maagwalandini’. in Bam, J, A (eds). Whose History Counts: Decolonising African Precolonial Historiography. African Sun Media.
asa: (Being a SynMqotsi, drome recognised by the Xhosa as a qualification to being initiated as a doctor). Iqula Publishing.
Ndayi, V. and Du Plooy, B. 2019.‘Gendered differences in the representation of men’s and women’s relationship to marriage and childbearing in business and economic contexts: A reading of the South African television soap opera Generations: The Legacy’. Agenda. (33) 4. Pp. 111-121
Ngubane, H. 1977. Body and Mind: An Ethnography of health and Disease in Nyuswa- Zulu thought and Practice. London and New York, Academic Press
Ntantala, P. 1958 [1960]. ‘Widows of the Reserve’. An African Treasury: Articles, Essays, Stories, Poems. New York: Crown Publishers
Ntuli, P. 2002. ‘African Knowledge Systems and African Renaissance’. In Hoppers,C.A. (ed) Indigenous Knowledge and Integration of Knowledge Systems: Towards a Philosophy of Articulation. Claremont, South Africa. New Africa Education
Nyamnjoh, F. 2012. ‘Potted Plants in Greenhouses: A Critical Reflection on the Resilience of Colonial Education in Africa’. Journal of Asian and African Studies. 0 (0) Pp 1-26
Nyoka, B. 2013. ‘Negation and Affirmation: A Critique of Sociology in South Africa’.African Sociological Review. 17 (1) Pp. 2-24
Nzegwu, N. 2005. ‘Questions of Identity and Inheritance: A Critical Review of Kwame Anthony Appiah’s In My Father’s House’ In Oyewumi. O. (ed) African Gender Studies: A Reader. New York. Palgrave MacMillan
Oyewumi. O. 1997. The Invention of Women: Making African Senses of Western Gender Discourses. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press
Oyewumi. O. 2005. ‘Visualizing Visualising the Body: Western Theories and African Subjects’. In Oyewumi. O. (ed) African Gender Studies: A Reader. New York. Palgrave MacMillan
Oyewumi. O. 2015. What Gender is Motherhood? Changing Yoruba Ideals of Power, Procreation and Identity in the Age of Modernity. Palgrave MacMillan
Rabe, M. and Rugunanan, P. 2012. ‘Exploring Gender and Race among Female Sociologists Exiting Academia in South Africa’. Gender and Education. 24 (5) Pp. 553-566
Ramose, M. 2015. ‘Ecology through Ubuntu’ in Meinhold, R. (Ed) Environmental Values Emerging from Cultures and Religions of the ASEAN Region. Guna Chakra Research Center, Graduate School of Philosophy & Religion, Assumption University
Romero, P. 2015. African Women: A Historical Panorama. Marcus Wiener Publishers, Princeton
Shiva, V. 1988. Staying Alive: Women, Ecology and Survival in India. New Delhi/London, d Books
Sisulu, E. 2002. Walter and Albertina Sisulu: In Our Lifetime. Cape Town, David Philip Publishers
Sitas A. 1997. The waning of sociology in South Africa. Society in Transition 28 (1–4) Pp. 12–19
Sitas, A. 2014. ‘Rethinking Africa’s Sociological Project’. Current Sociology. 62 (4) Pp 457-471
Steady, F. C. 2011. Women and Leadership in West Africa: Mothering the Nation and Humanizing Humanising the State. Palgrave, MacMillan
Tisani, N. 2000. Continuity and Change in Xhosa Historiography During the Nineteenth Century: An Exploration through Textual Analysis. Unpublished PhD Dissertation. Grahamstown, Rhodes University
Tisani, N. 2017. ‘Re-visiting and Celebrating our Literary Elders to build a Multiversal Tomorrow’. Paper Presented at Rhodes University Colloquium- Rethinking South African Canonical Writing: Centring the isiXhosa Writings of the 19th and Early 20th Centuries. 21-22 June
Tisani, N. 2018. “Of Definitions and Naming: ‘I am the earth itself. God made me a chief on the very first day of creation’ “in Bam, J, Ntsebeza, L, Zinn, A (eds). Whose History Counts: Decolonising African Pre-colonial Historiography. African Sun Media.
Tisani, N. 2020. A Fortuitous Appearance in History of the Enigmatic Nosuthu MaMtshawe Jotelo, a Nineteenth Century siXhosa Speaking Woman. Paper Presented in Nelson Mandela University Colloquium, 28-29 August 2020
Tlali, M. 1989. Footprints in the Quag: Stories and Dialogues from Soweto. With an Introduction by Lauretta Ngcobo. Cape Town, David Philip Publishers
Vilakazi, H. 2002. ‘The Problem of African Universities’. In Makgoba, M.W. (ed)African Renaissance: The New Struggle. Tafelberg, Mafube Publishers.
Walker, C. (ed) 1990. Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945. Cape Town: James Currey
Webster E. 1985. ‘Competing paradigms: Towards a critical sociology in Southernocial Dynamics 11(1) Pp. 44–48