5 - Analysing South Africa’s Soft Power in Africa through the Knowledge Diplomacy of Higher Education
Journal of Higher Education in Africa,
Vol. 15 No. 2 (2017): Journal of Higher Education in Africa
Abstract
In just 20 years of democracy, South Africa has benefitted immensely from the products of its high culture as reflected by its internationally recognized universities that have the potential to promote the country’s national interests, particularly at the continental level. The role that South Africa’s higher education plays as a sophisticated tool of influence in Africa’s development is becoming increasingly critical to the transformation of the continent, thus strengthening its status as an important regional and global actor. Using the notion of soft power, this article provides an analysis of the significance of Pretoria’s higher education for the country’s international reputation and how its Higher Education Institutions could position themselves internationally for economic and geopolitical benefits. While the article shows that the increasing preference for higher education in South Africa – especially by African academics and students – is a valuable soft power platform for Pretoria to assert itself as an acceptable regional power in Africa, it argues that this has shortcomings at the continental level.
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- Abazie Humphrey, I.M., 2014, ‘Engaging the Nigerian Niger Delta ex-agitators: The impacts of the Presidential amnesty program to economic development’, paper presented at the 14th EADI General Conference, Bonn, 23-26th June.
- Altbach, P., 2010, ‘Globalization and the university: Myths and realities in an unequal world’, Tertiary Education and Management, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 3-25.
- Badat, S., 2010, ‘Global rankings of universities: A perverse and present burden’, in E. Unterhalter and V. Carpentier, eds., Global inequalities and higher education: Whose interests are we serving?, Basingstoke: Palgrave. pp. 117-141.
- Baldwin, D.A., 2012, ‘Power in international relations’, in W. Carlnaes, T. Risse and B. Simmons, eds., Handbook of International Relations, London: Sage Publishers.pp. 273-397.
- Botonero, E.M.A., 2013, ‘EU Higher Education Reforms as Soft Power in Neighbouring Countries: A Projection of Influence by Compelling Means’, paper presented at the ECPR General Conference, Bordeaux, 4-7th September. Accessed 14 April 2015, http://ecpr.eu/Filestore/PaperProposal/f472b41a-3915- 4106-9c7b-6354988a033e.pdf
- Botha, M., 2010, ‘Compatibility between internationalisation and Africanizing higher education in South Africa’, Journal of Studies in Higher Education, Vol. 14,No. 2, pp. 200-213.
- Castells M., 1993, ‘The University system: Engine of development in the new world economy’, in A
- Ransom, S-M. Khoo and V. Selvaratnam (eds.), Improving Higher Education in Developing Countries,
- Washington DC: The World Bank. pp. 65-80.
- Cloete, N., Sheppard, C., Bailey, T., and MacGregor, K., 2015, ‘South Africa as a continental PhD
- hub?’, University World News Issue No, 357. 6 March.
- Council on Higher Education, 2004, South African Higher Education in the First Decade of Democracy, Pretoria: CHE.
- Department of Higher Education and Training, 2014, Report on the Evaluation of the 2012
- Universities’ Research Publication Outputs. DHET, Pretoria.
- Dlamini, N., 2018, ‘An Assessment of the Effects of Xenophobia on Social Integration in Isipingo,
- KwaZulu-Natal Province’, unpublished Masters Dissertation, University of Zululand.
- Gorman, C., 2013, ‘Talent and Human Capital: Why it determines today’s business success’, Times
- Literary Supplement 27 March 2013, http://www.eremedia.com/
- tlnt/talent-and-human-capital-why-it-determines-todays-business-success/
- Hackbarth, J. R., 2009, ‘Soft power and smart power in Africa’, Strategic Insights, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 1-19.
- Harle, J., 2013, ‘Strengthening research in African universities: Reflections on policy,
- partnerships and politics’, Policy & Practice: A Development Education Review, Vol. 16, pp. 80-100.
- Isike, C., and Ogunnubi, O. 2017, ‘South Africa’s foreign policy aspirations and the National
- Development Plan (NDP 2030): The role of soft power’, Journal of Contemporary African Studies, Vol. 35, No. 3, pp. 284-302.
- International Education Association of South Africa. 2014, Study South Africa. (www.ieasa.studysa.org).
- Jones, W.J., 2010, ‘European Union soft power: Cultural diplomacy & higher education in Southeast Asia’, Silpakorn University International Journal, Vol. 9, No. 10, pp. 41-70.
- Johnston, D., 2012, ‘The diplomacy of knowledge’, The Globe and Mail, 17 February 2012, (http://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/the-diplomacy-of- knowledge/article546590/)Kishun, R., 2007, ‘The internationalisation of higher education in South Africa: Progress and challenges’, Journal of Studies in International Education, Vol. 11, No. 3/4, pp. 455-469.
- Knight, J., 2014, ‘The limits of soft power in higher education’, University World News. 31 January, Issue No: 305. Accessed March 3. (http://www. universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20140129134636725)
- Kotecha, P., 2004, Determining a sectoral approach to internationalization. IZWI: Voice of HE Leadership 3(3rd Quarter), 11.
- Kurlantzick, J., 2007, ‘Chinese soft power in Southeast Asia (Part I)’, The Globalist, 2 July, 2007 (http://www.theglobalist.com/StoryId.aspx?StoryId=6240)
- Lee, J., and Sehoole, C., 2015, ‘Regional, continental and global mobility to an emerging economy: the case of South Africa’, Higher Education, Vol. 70,No. 5, pp. 827-843.
- Le Roux, A., 2001, ‘African renaissance: A quest for the transformation and Africanisation of South African education’, South African Journal of Education, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 31-36.
- Li, M., 2010, ‘China: Domestic sources of its soft power strategy’, in D. Flemes and D. Nolte, eds., Regional leadership in the global system, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing Limited. pp. 207-222.
- Makgoba, M.W., 1997, ‘Mokolo: The Makgoba affair: Reflection on Transformation’, Bel Air, CA, Vivlia.
- Marginson, S., 2007, ‘Global university rankings: Implications in general and for Australia’, Journal of Higher Education Policy, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 131-142.
- Marginson, S., and van der Wende, M., 2007, ‘To rank or to be ranked: The impact of global rankings in higher education’, Journal of Studies in International Education, Vol. 11, No. (3/4), pp. 306-329.
- Mlambo, V.H., and Adetiba, T.C. 2017, ‘Effects of Brain Drain on the South African Health Sector; Analysis of the Dynamics of its Push Factors’, Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 62-72.
- Morgenthau, H. J., 1948, Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace,New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
- National Planning Commission, 2012, National Development Plan 2030, Pretoria: Government Printer.
- National Research Foundation, 2015a, Strategic Framework: Infrastructure Funding Instruments: National Equipment Programme (NEP) and National Nanotechnology Equipment Programme (NNEP), Pretoria: NRF.
- National Research Foundation, 2015b, DST-NRF Conference Fund 2016, NRF: Pretoria.
- Nye, J. S., 2011, The Future of Power, New York: Public Affairs.
- Nye, J.S., 2005, Soft power and higher education. Educause: Forum for the future of higher education, pp. 11–14. Retrieved from https://cdn.mashreghnews.ir/old/files/fa/news/1393/4/11/637473_515.pdf
- Nye, J.S., 2004, Soft power: The means to success in world politics, New York: Public Affairs.
- Nye, J.S., 2002, ‘Limits of American power’, Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 117, No. 4, pp. 549-559.
- Nye, J.S., 1990, Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power, New York: Basic Books.
- Ogunnubi O., and Okeke-Uzodike, U., 2015, ‘South Africa’s foreign policy and the strategy of soft power’, South African Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 23-41.
- Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 1996, The knowledge based economy, Paris: OECD.
- Tella, O., and Ogunnubi, O., 2014, ‘Hegemony or survival: South Africa’s regional pursuit of soft power and the challenges of xenophobia’, Africa Insight, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp. 145-163.
- Rhodes University, 2005, Internationalisation Policy (https://www.ru.ac.za/media/rhodesuniversity/content/institutionalplanning/documents/Internationalization%20Policy%202011.pdf)
- Ryan, M., 1998, Knowledge Diplomacy. Global Competition and the Politics of Intellectual Property, Washington, DC: Brookings Institute Press.
- Smith, K., 2012, ‘Soft Power: The essence of South Africa’s foreign policy’, in C. Landsberg and J. van Wyk, eds., South African foreign policy review volume 1, Pretoria: Africa Institute of South Africa. pp. 68-83.
- Teferra, D., 2014, ‘The ‘soft power’ proof of the pudding – Not in the branding’, University World News. 21 February, No: 308. Accessed July 13, 2015 http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20140220125331356
- Teferra, D., 2013, ‘Charting African Higher Education: Perspectives at a glance’, in D. Teferra, ed., Funding higher education in sub-Saharan Africa, Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. pp. 9-20.
- The THE-QS, Top 500 universities, Accesed 12/03/2015 from http://content.qs.com/supplement2011/top500.pdf
- The SJTU, Top 500 Universities, Retrieved 12/03/2015 from http://www.shanghairanking.com/ARWU2014.html
- Tikly, L., 2014, ‘Education and the new Imperialism’, Comparative Education, Vol.40, No. 2, pp. 173-198.
- Tomalin, B., 2013, ‘Higher education – a soft power weapon of excellence’, Intro. September 19th, 2013. Accessed 07/04/2015 from http://blog.into-corporate.com/higher-education-a-soft-power-weapon-of-excellence/
- UCT Policy on internationalization, Accessed 12/03/2015, from http://www.
- internationalexchange.uct.ac.za/usr/internationalexchange/downloads/policyinternationlaisation.pdf.
- UNESCO Institute of Statistics, 2009, Global education digest 2009. Comparing education statistics across the world, Montreal: UNESCO.
- University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2008, Strategic Plan 2007-2016, UKZN Corporate Relation< Durban.
- University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2005, The Premier University of African Scholarship,Durban: UKZN.
- Wangenge-Ouma, G., & Cloete, N., 2008, ‘Financing higher education in South Africa: Public funding, non-governmental revenue and tuition fees’, South African Journal of Higher Education 22(4), 906-919.
- Yang, R., 2007, ‘China’s soft power projection in higher education’, International Higher Education, Vol. 46, (Winter), pp. 24-25.
- Yang, R., 2010, ‘Soft power and higher education: An examination of China’s Confucius Institutes’, Globalisation, Societies and
- Education, Vol. 8. No. 2,pp. 235-245.
- Zeleza, P.T., 2005, February 21-25, ‘Transformational education and African universities. Cross-border provision and the future of higher education in Africa: Papers and program’, paper presented at the 11th AAU (Association of African Universities) Conference, in collaboration with the University of Cape Town, South Africa, Cape Town, 21-25th September.
References
Abazie Humphrey, I.M., 2014, ‘Engaging the Nigerian Niger Delta ex-agitators: The impacts of the Presidential amnesty program to economic development’, paper presented at the 14th EADI General Conference, Bonn, 23-26th June.
Altbach, P., 2010, ‘Globalization and the university: Myths and realities in an unequal world’, Tertiary Education and Management, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 3-25.
Badat, S., 2010, ‘Global rankings of universities: A perverse and present burden’, in E. Unterhalter and V. Carpentier, eds., Global inequalities and higher education: Whose interests are we serving?, Basingstoke: Palgrave. pp. 117-141.
Baldwin, D.A., 2012, ‘Power in international relations’, in W. Carlnaes, T. Risse and B. Simmons, eds., Handbook of International Relations, London: Sage Publishers.pp. 273-397.
Botonero, E.M.A., 2013, ‘EU Higher Education Reforms as Soft Power in Neighbouring Countries: A Projection of Influence by Compelling Means’, paper presented at the ECPR General Conference, Bordeaux, 4-7th September. Accessed 14 April 2015, http://ecpr.eu/Filestore/PaperProposal/f472b41a-3915- 4106-9c7b-6354988a033e.pdf
Botha, M., 2010, ‘Compatibility between internationalisation and Africanizing higher education in South Africa’, Journal of Studies in Higher Education, Vol. 14,No. 2, pp. 200-213.
Castells M., 1993, ‘The University system: Engine of development in the new world economy’, in A
Ransom, S-M. Khoo and V. Selvaratnam (eds.), Improving Higher Education in Developing Countries,
Washington DC: The World Bank. pp. 65-80.
Cloete, N., Sheppard, C., Bailey, T., and MacGregor, K., 2015, ‘South Africa as a continental PhD
hub?’, University World News Issue No, 357. 6 March.
Council on Higher Education, 2004, South African Higher Education in the First Decade of Democracy, Pretoria: CHE.
Department of Higher Education and Training, 2014, Report on the Evaluation of the 2012
Universities’ Research Publication Outputs. DHET, Pretoria.
Dlamini, N., 2018, ‘An Assessment of the Effects of Xenophobia on Social Integration in Isipingo,
KwaZulu-Natal Province’, unpublished Masters Dissertation, University of Zululand.
Gorman, C., 2013, ‘Talent and Human Capital: Why it determines today’s business success’, Times
Literary Supplement 27 March 2013, http://www.eremedia.com/
tlnt/talent-and-human-capital-why-it-determines-todays-business-success/
Hackbarth, J. R., 2009, ‘Soft power and smart power in Africa’, Strategic Insights, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 1-19.
Harle, J., 2013, ‘Strengthening research in African universities: Reflections on policy,
partnerships and politics’, Policy & Practice: A Development Education Review, Vol. 16, pp. 80-100.
Isike, C., and Ogunnubi, O. 2017, ‘South Africa’s foreign policy aspirations and the National
Development Plan (NDP 2030): The role of soft power’, Journal of Contemporary African Studies, Vol. 35, No. 3, pp. 284-302.
International Education Association of South Africa. 2014, Study South Africa. (www.ieasa.studysa.org).
Jones, W.J., 2010, ‘European Union soft power: Cultural diplomacy & higher education in Southeast Asia’, Silpakorn University International Journal, Vol. 9, No. 10, pp. 41-70.
Johnston, D., 2012, ‘The diplomacy of knowledge’, The Globe and Mail, 17 February 2012, (http://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/the-diplomacy-of- knowledge/article546590/)Kishun, R., 2007, ‘The internationalisation of higher education in South Africa: Progress and challenges’, Journal of Studies in International Education, Vol. 11, No. 3/4, pp. 455-469.
Knight, J., 2014, ‘The limits of soft power in higher education’, University World News. 31 January, Issue No: 305. Accessed March 3. (http://www. universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20140129134636725)
Kotecha, P., 2004, Determining a sectoral approach to internationalization. IZWI: Voice of HE Leadership 3(3rd Quarter), 11.
Kurlantzick, J., 2007, ‘Chinese soft power in Southeast Asia (Part I)’, The Globalist, 2 July, 2007 (http://www.theglobalist.com/StoryId.aspx?StoryId=6240)
Lee, J., and Sehoole, C., 2015, ‘Regional, continental and global mobility to an emerging economy: the case of South Africa’, Higher Education, Vol. 70,No. 5, pp. 827-843.
Le Roux, A., 2001, ‘African renaissance: A quest for the transformation and Africanisation of South African education’, South African Journal of Education, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 31-36.
Li, M., 2010, ‘China: Domestic sources of its soft power strategy’, in D. Flemes and D. Nolte, eds., Regional leadership in the global system, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing Limited. pp. 207-222.
Makgoba, M.W., 1997, ‘Mokolo: The Makgoba affair: Reflection on Transformation’, Bel Air, CA, Vivlia.
Marginson, S., 2007, ‘Global university rankings: Implications in general and for Australia’, Journal of Higher Education Policy, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 131-142.
Marginson, S., and van der Wende, M., 2007, ‘To rank or to be ranked: The impact of global rankings in higher education’, Journal of Studies in International Education, Vol. 11, No. (3/4), pp. 306-329.
Mlambo, V.H., and Adetiba, T.C. 2017, ‘Effects of Brain Drain on the South African Health Sector; Analysis of the Dynamics of its Push Factors’, Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 62-72.
Morgenthau, H. J., 1948, Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace,New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
National Planning Commission, 2012, National Development Plan 2030, Pretoria: Government Printer.
National Research Foundation, 2015a, Strategic Framework: Infrastructure Funding Instruments: National Equipment Programme (NEP) and National Nanotechnology Equipment Programme (NNEP), Pretoria: NRF.
National Research Foundation, 2015b, DST-NRF Conference Fund 2016, NRF: Pretoria.
Nye, J. S., 2011, The Future of Power, New York: Public Affairs.
Nye, J.S., 2005, Soft power and higher education. Educause: Forum for the future of higher education, pp. 11–14. Retrieved from https://cdn.mashreghnews.ir/old/files/fa/news/1393/4/11/637473_515.pdf
Nye, J.S., 2004, Soft power: The means to success in world politics, New York: Public Affairs.
Nye, J.S., 2002, ‘Limits of American power’, Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 117, No. 4, pp. 549-559.
Nye, J.S., 1990, Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power, New York: Basic Books.
Ogunnubi O., and Okeke-Uzodike, U., 2015, ‘South Africa’s foreign policy and the strategy of soft power’, South African Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 23-41.
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 1996, The knowledge based economy, Paris: OECD.
Tella, O., and Ogunnubi, O., 2014, ‘Hegemony or survival: South Africa’s regional pursuit of soft power and the challenges of xenophobia’, Africa Insight, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp. 145-163.
Rhodes University, 2005, Internationalisation Policy (https://www.ru.ac.za/media/rhodesuniversity/content/institutionalplanning/documents/Internationalization%20Policy%202011.pdf)
Ryan, M., 1998, Knowledge Diplomacy. Global Competition and the Politics of Intellectual Property, Washington, DC: Brookings Institute Press.
Smith, K., 2012, ‘Soft Power: The essence of South Africa’s foreign policy’, in C. Landsberg and J. van Wyk, eds., South African foreign policy review volume 1, Pretoria: Africa Institute of South Africa. pp. 68-83.
Teferra, D., 2014, ‘The ‘soft power’ proof of the pudding – Not in the branding’, University World News. 21 February, No: 308. Accessed July 13, 2015 http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20140220125331356
Teferra, D., 2013, ‘Charting African Higher Education: Perspectives at a glance’, in D. Teferra, ed., Funding higher education in sub-Saharan Africa, Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. pp. 9-20.
The THE-QS, Top 500 universities, Accesed 12/03/2015 from http://content.qs.com/supplement2011/top500.pdf
The SJTU, Top 500 Universities, Retrieved 12/03/2015 from http://www.shanghairanking.com/ARWU2014.html
Tikly, L., 2014, ‘Education and the new Imperialism’, Comparative Education, Vol.40, No. 2, pp. 173-198.
Tomalin, B., 2013, ‘Higher education – a soft power weapon of excellence’, Intro. September 19th, 2013. Accessed 07/04/2015 from http://blog.into-corporate.com/higher-education-a-soft-power-weapon-of-excellence/
UCT Policy on internationalization, Accessed 12/03/2015, from http://www.
internationalexchange.uct.ac.za/usr/internationalexchange/downloads/policyinternationlaisation.pdf.
UNESCO Institute of Statistics, 2009, Global education digest 2009. Comparing education statistics across the world, Montreal: UNESCO.
University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2008, Strategic Plan 2007-2016, UKZN Corporate Relation< Durban.
University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2005, The Premier University of African Scholarship,Durban: UKZN.
Wangenge-Ouma, G., & Cloete, N., 2008, ‘Financing higher education in South Africa: Public funding, non-governmental revenue and tuition fees’, South African Journal of Higher Education 22(4), 906-919.
Yang, R., 2007, ‘China’s soft power projection in higher education’, International Higher Education, Vol. 46, (Winter), pp. 24-25.
Yang, R., 2010, ‘Soft power and higher education: An examination of China’s Confucius Institutes’, Globalisation, Societies and
Education, Vol. 8. No. 2,pp. 235-245.
Zeleza, P.T., 2005, February 21-25, ‘Transformational education and African universities. Cross-border provision and the future of higher education in Africa: Papers and program’, paper presented at the 11th AAU (Association of African Universities) Conference, in collaboration with the University of Cape Town, South Africa, Cape Town, 21-25th September.