4 - In Search of Sources other than Governmental in the Financing of Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Word of Caution Beyond the Gains
Corresponding Author(s) : Touorouzou Herve Some
Journal of Higher Education in Africa,
Vol. 8 No. 1 (2010): Journal of Higher Education in Africa
Abstract
With the massification of higher education, the African higher education system is undergoing a profound structural crisis. The economic situation is not the only cause of the debilitating state of higher education in Africa. The African university is caught up in a dilemma: It seems to be left with little choice but to diversify the sources of its revenue, which means the neces- sity of introducing cost sharing. With this scheme, students and parents, especially, are expected to bear an important share of the cost of education. This article takes a look at the financial and management reforms adopted in some African countries in a bid to boost access, quality and efficiency. It documents the cost sharing measures introduced alongside its gains, then takes a critical look at the impact that revenue diversification might have on the mission of the university, the quality of learning and the community with the increasing commercial ordering of life. It suggests that African govern- ments and university leaders resolutely look for ways beyond the financial and management policies to bail out their tertiary education systems. Build- ing political consensus and adopting regional and continental strategies will go a long way toward creating sustainable institutions of higher learning.
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- Adams, M., Ibrahima, B-L. and Mukweso, M., 1991, ‘Francophone West Africa’, in Philip. G. Altbach, International Higher Education: An Encyclopedia, 1: 349- 374, New York: Garland Publishing.
- Altbrecht, D. and Ziderman, A., 1991, ‘Deferred Cost Recovery for Higher Education: Student Loan Programs in Developing Countries’, Washington: The World Bank.
- Bollag, B., 2003, ‘Improving Tertiary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Things that Work!’, Report of a Regional Training Conference held in Accra, Ghana on September 22-25, 2003.
- Clarke, R. B., 1995, Places of Inquiry: Research and Advanced Education in Modern Universities, Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Court, D., 1991, ‘The Development of University Education in Sub-Saharan Africa’, in Philip. G.
- Altbach, International Higher Education: An Encyclopedia, Vol. 1, pp. (329-347), New York: Garland Publishing.
- Court, D., 1999, ‘Financing Higher education in Africa: Makerere, the Quiet Revolution’, The World Bank and Rockefeller Foundation.
- Experton, W. and Fevre, C., 2010, Financing Higher Education in Africa, Washington: The World Bank Group.
- Guenda, W., 2003, ‘Burkina Faso’, in Damtew Teferra & Philip G. Altbach, eds.,
- African Higher Education, Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, pp. 195-203.
- Haddad, G., 2010, ‘Introduction: Relativité d’échelle de l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche en Afrique’, in Synthèse des Études Thématiques Réalisées dans le Cadre de la Task Force pour l’Enseignement Supérieur en Afrique, UNESCO,pp. 1-2. [Introduction: Relativity of Scale of Higher Education and Scientific Research in Africa, in Thematic Studies Synthesis Realized in the Context of the Task Force for Higher Education in Africa].
- Hinchliffe, K., 1985, Issues Related to Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa, Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
- Ishengoma, J., 2004, ‘Cost Sharing and Participation in SubSaharan Africa: The Case of Tanzania’, Unpublished PhD Dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo.
- Johnstone, D.B., 1986, ‘Sharing the Costs of Higher Education: Student Financial Assistance in the United Kingdom, the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Sweden and the United States’, New York College Entrance Examination Board.
- Johnstone, D.B., 1990, ‘The Cost of Higher Education: World Wide Issues and Trends for the 1990s’, Retrieved from htpp: //www.gse.buffalo.edu? FASJohnstone/Fin_Ed_for_Altbach.htm, September 15, 2004.
- Johnstone, D.B., 1999, ‘Financing Higher Education: Who Should Pay?’, in Philip G. Altbach, Robert O. Berdahl, Gumport, P. J., eds., The American University in the 21st Century: Social, Political and Economic Challenges, Baltimore: the Johns Hopkins University Press [revised edition 2004].
- Johnstone, D.B, 2001, ‘Those “Out of Control” Costs’, in Philip G. Altbach, D. Bruce Johnstone, D.B. & Gumport, P.J., eds., In Defense of the American Public University, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Johnstone, D.B., 2002, ‘Challenges of Financial Austerity: Imperatives and Limitations of Revenue Diversification in Higher Education’, The Welsh Journal of Education [Special International Issue], 11, 1:18-36.
- Johnstone, D.B., 2003a, June, ‘Cost-sharing in Higher Education: Tuition, Financial Assistance, and Accessibility’, Czech Sociological Review, 39:3.
- Johnstone, D.B., 2004, ‘Higher Education Finance and Accessibility and Student Loans in SubSahara Africa’, Journal of Higher Education in Africa, 2, 2:11-36.
- King, K., 1995, ‘World Bank Traditions of Support to Higher Education and Capacity Building: Reflections on Higher Education: The Lessons of Experience’, in Lene Buchert and Kenneth King, Learning from Experience: Policy and Practice in Aid to Higher Education, The Hague: Centre for the Study of Education in Developing Countries (CESO).
- Korbeogo, G., 1999, ‘Logiques Sociales et Participation à l’Espace Syndical Etudiant: Cas des Etudiants de la FLASHS et de la FSS (Université de Ouagadougou)’, Mémoire de Maîtrise, University of Ouagadougou.[Social Logic and Participation in Student Union Space: The Case of Students of FLASHS (Humanities and Human Science Faculty) and the FSS (Faculty of Health Sciences), a Masters degree thesis, University of Ouagadougou, Burkina-Faso].
- Luhanga, L.M. and Mbwette, S.A.T., 2002, ‘Implementation of Management and Financial Reforms at the University of Dar es Salaam’, in Burton L., M. Mwamila, Issa Omari and Eva Mbuya, Financing of Higher Education in Eastern and Southern Africa: Diversifying Revenue and Expanding Accessibility, pp. 96-109.
- Mamdani, M., 2007, Scholars in the Marketplace: The Dilemmas of Neoliberal Reforms at Makerere University 1989-2005, Kampala: Fountain Publisher.
- Musisi, N. and Muwanga, N., 2003, Makerere University in Transition, 1993-2000, Kampala: Fountain Publishers.
- Mwinzi, D., 2002, ‘The Impact of Cost-sharing Policy on the Living Conditions of Students in Kenyan Public Universities: The Case of Nairobi and Moi Universities’, Paper presented at the 28th Annual International Symposium sponsored by CODESRIA, Dakar, and the Center of African Studies University of Illinois. Theme: African Universities in the 21st Century, Dakar, April 25-27.
- Ng’ethe, N., Lumumba, N.A, Subotzky, G. and Sutherland-Addy, E., 2003, Higher Education Innovations in Sub- Saharan Africa: With Specific Reference to Universities, ADEA Working Group on Higher Education for the Partnership on Education.
- Ngolovoi, M., 2008, ‘Means Testing of Student Loans in Kenya’, A dissertation presented at the University of New York at Buffalo, Unpublished PhD Dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo.
- Nortey, V., 2002, ‘Students’ Loan Scheme: The Ghanaian Experience (Repayment Arrangements)’, in Burton L., M. Mwamila, Issa Omari & Eva Mbuya, Financing of Higher Education in Eastern and Southern Africa: Diversifying Revenue and Expanding Accessibility, 211- 221.
- Oketch, O.M., 2003, ‘Affording the Unaffordable: Cost Sharing in Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa’, Peabody Journal of Education, 78 (3), 88-106.
- Psacharopoulos, G., 1980, ‘Higher Education in Developing Countries: A Cost-Benefit Analysis’,
- World Bank Staff Working Paper, 440, Washington, D.C: The World Bank.
- Sawyerr, A., 2002, ‘Challenges Facing African Universities: Selected Issues’, www.aau.org/english/documents/asa_challengesfigs.pdf. Retrieved on 01/10/ 2005. Retrieved, April 15, 2005.
- Sawyerr, A., 2004, ‘Challenges Facing African Universities: Some Issues’, African Studies Review, 47.1: 1-59.
- Sicherman, C., 2008, ‘Makerere’s Myths, Makerere’s History: A Retrospect’, JHEA/ RESA, 6.1: 11-39.
- Somda, P., 1995, ‘The Relevance of an African University Curriculum to the National Labor Market: The Case of the Faculty of Economics and Management (FASEG) at the University of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso’, Unpublished PhD Dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo.
- Some, T.H., 2008, ‘Student Loan Programs in Ghana and Burkina Faso: How to Square the Circle?’, in Ali Abdi & Shibao Guo, eds., Education and Social Development: Global Issues and Analyses, Netherlands: Sense Publishers, 155-170.
- Some, T.H., 2006, ‘Cost Sharing and Institutional Instability in Francophone Africa: Student Resistance at the University of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso’, Unpublished PhD Dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo.
- Ssebuwufu, P. and Joseph, M., 2002, ‘University Financing and Management Reforms: The Experience of Makerere University’, in Burton L., M. Mwamila, Issa Omari & Eva Mbuya, Financing of Higher Education in Eastern and Southern Africa: Diversifying Revenue and Expanding Accessibility, 86-109.
- Ssebuwufu, P. and Joseph M., 2003, ‘Cooperation in Higher Education: Visions, Models and Experiences: What Works’, Paper presented at the Norwegian Council for Higher Education/SIU Conference, 6-7th October, 2003.
- Teferra, D., 2004, ‘Lessons of Experience: Reform Initiatives in African Universities’, International Higher Education, Winter 2004, 34, 16-18., http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/newsletter/News34/text009.htm.
- Varghese, N.V., 2000, ‘The Limits to Diversification of Sources of Funding in Higher Education’, Paper presented at the IMHE General Conference on Beyond the Entrepreneurial University? Global Challenges and Institutional Responses, 11 – 13 September, 2000, OECD, Paris: UNESCO: IIEP Contributions, 34, 7- 23.
- William, S.S., 1997, ‘Revitalizing Universities in Africa: Strategies and Guidelines’, ADEA Working Group on Higher Education’, World Bank, 1997.
- Woodhall, M., 2002, ‘Student Loans: Potentials, Problems and Lessons from International Experience’, in Burton L., M. Mwamila, Issa Omari & Eva Mbuya, eds., Financing of Higher Education in Eastern and Southern Africa: Diversifying Revenue and Expanding Accessibility, 110-125.
- World Bank, 1988, Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Policies for Adjustment, Revitalization and Expansion, Washington, D.C: the World Bank.
- World Bank, 1994, Higher Education: The Lessons of Experience, Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
- World Bank, 2000, Higher Education in Developing Countries: Peril and Promise, The Task Force on Higher Education and Society, Washington D.C.: The World Bank.
- World Bank, 2002, Constructing Knowledge Societies: New Challenges for Tertiary Education, Washington, D.C.: The International Bank for the Reconstruction and Development.
- World Bank, 2010, Financing Higher Education in Africa, Washington, D.C.: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
- Yepes, C. de Prado, 2006, ‘World Regionalization of Higher Education: Policy Proposals for International Organizations’, Higher Education Policy, 19, 111- 128, http://www.palgravejournals.com/hep/journal/v19/n1pdf/8300113a.pdf, retrieved July 26, 2006.
- Youssef, C., 2005, ‘World Bank Priorities in Education Lending: An Ever-changing Endeavor’, Paterson Review, 6:1- 29.
References
Adams, M., Ibrahima, B-L. and Mukweso, M., 1991, ‘Francophone West Africa’, in Philip. G. Altbach, International Higher Education: An Encyclopedia, 1: 349- 374, New York: Garland Publishing.
Altbrecht, D. and Ziderman, A., 1991, ‘Deferred Cost Recovery for Higher Education: Student Loan Programs in Developing Countries’, Washington: The World Bank.
Bollag, B., 2003, ‘Improving Tertiary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Things that Work!’, Report of a Regional Training Conference held in Accra, Ghana on September 22-25, 2003.
Clarke, R. B., 1995, Places of Inquiry: Research and Advanced Education in Modern Universities, Berkeley: University of California Press.
Court, D., 1991, ‘The Development of University Education in Sub-Saharan Africa’, in Philip. G.
Altbach, International Higher Education: An Encyclopedia, Vol. 1, pp. (329-347), New York: Garland Publishing.
Court, D., 1999, ‘Financing Higher education in Africa: Makerere, the Quiet Revolution’, The World Bank and Rockefeller Foundation.
Experton, W. and Fevre, C., 2010, Financing Higher Education in Africa, Washington: The World Bank Group.
Guenda, W., 2003, ‘Burkina Faso’, in Damtew Teferra & Philip G. Altbach, eds.,
African Higher Education, Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, pp. 195-203.
Haddad, G., 2010, ‘Introduction: Relativité d’échelle de l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche en Afrique’, in Synthèse des Études Thématiques Réalisées dans le Cadre de la Task Force pour l’Enseignement Supérieur en Afrique, UNESCO,pp. 1-2. [Introduction: Relativity of Scale of Higher Education and Scientific Research in Africa, in Thematic Studies Synthesis Realized in the Context of the Task Force for Higher Education in Africa].
Hinchliffe, K., 1985, Issues Related to Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa, Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
Ishengoma, J., 2004, ‘Cost Sharing and Participation in SubSaharan Africa: The Case of Tanzania’, Unpublished PhD Dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo.
Johnstone, D.B., 1986, ‘Sharing the Costs of Higher Education: Student Financial Assistance in the United Kingdom, the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Sweden and the United States’, New York College Entrance Examination Board.
Johnstone, D.B., 1990, ‘The Cost of Higher Education: World Wide Issues and Trends for the 1990s’, Retrieved from htpp: //www.gse.buffalo.edu? FASJohnstone/Fin_Ed_for_Altbach.htm, September 15, 2004.
Johnstone, D.B., 1999, ‘Financing Higher Education: Who Should Pay?’, in Philip G. Altbach, Robert O. Berdahl, Gumport, P. J., eds., The American University in the 21st Century: Social, Political and Economic Challenges, Baltimore: the Johns Hopkins University Press [revised edition 2004].
Johnstone, D.B, 2001, ‘Those “Out of Control” Costs’, in Philip G. Altbach, D. Bruce Johnstone, D.B. & Gumport, P.J., eds., In Defense of the American Public University, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Johnstone, D.B., 2002, ‘Challenges of Financial Austerity: Imperatives and Limitations of Revenue Diversification in Higher Education’, The Welsh Journal of Education [Special International Issue], 11, 1:18-36.
Johnstone, D.B., 2003a, June, ‘Cost-sharing in Higher Education: Tuition, Financial Assistance, and Accessibility’, Czech Sociological Review, 39:3.
Johnstone, D.B., 2004, ‘Higher Education Finance and Accessibility and Student Loans in SubSahara Africa’, Journal of Higher Education in Africa, 2, 2:11-36.
King, K., 1995, ‘World Bank Traditions of Support to Higher Education and Capacity Building: Reflections on Higher Education: The Lessons of Experience’, in Lene Buchert and Kenneth King, Learning from Experience: Policy and Practice in Aid to Higher Education, The Hague: Centre for the Study of Education in Developing Countries (CESO).
Korbeogo, G., 1999, ‘Logiques Sociales et Participation à l’Espace Syndical Etudiant: Cas des Etudiants de la FLASHS et de la FSS (Université de Ouagadougou)’, Mémoire de Maîtrise, University of Ouagadougou.[Social Logic and Participation in Student Union Space: The Case of Students of FLASHS (Humanities and Human Science Faculty) and the FSS (Faculty of Health Sciences), a Masters degree thesis, University of Ouagadougou, Burkina-Faso].
Luhanga, L.M. and Mbwette, S.A.T., 2002, ‘Implementation of Management and Financial Reforms at the University of Dar es Salaam’, in Burton L., M. Mwamila, Issa Omari and Eva Mbuya, Financing of Higher Education in Eastern and Southern Africa: Diversifying Revenue and Expanding Accessibility, pp. 96-109.
Mamdani, M., 2007, Scholars in the Marketplace: The Dilemmas of Neoliberal Reforms at Makerere University 1989-2005, Kampala: Fountain Publisher.
Musisi, N. and Muwanga, N., 2003, Makerere University in Transition, 1993-2000, Kampala: Fountain Publishers.
Mwinzi, D., 2002, ‘The Impact of Cost-sharing Policy on the Living Conditions of Students in Kenyan Public Universities: The Case of Nairobi and Moi Universities’, Paper presented at the 28th Annual International Symposium sponsored by CODESRIA, Dakar, and the Center of African Studies University of Illinois. Theme: African Universities in the 21st Century, Dakar, April 25-27.
Ng’ethe, N., Lumumba, N.A, Subotzky, G. and Sutherland-Addy, E., 2003, Higher Education Innovations in Sub- Saharan Africa: With Specific Reference to Universities, ADEA Working Group on Higher Education for the Partnership on Education.
Ngolovoi, M., 2008, ‘Means Testing of Student Loans in Kenya’, A dissertation presented at the University of New York at Buffalo, Unpublished PhD Dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo.
Nortey, V., 2002, ‘Students’ Loan Scheme: The Ghanaian Experience (Repayment Arrangements)’, in Burton L., M. Mwamila, Issa Omari & Eva Mbuya, Financing of Higher Education in Eastern and Southern Africa: Diversifying Revenue and Expanding Accessibility, 211- 221.
Oketch, O.M., 2003, ‘Affording the Unaffordable: Cost Sharing in Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa’, Peabody Journal of Education, 78 (3), 88-106.
Psacharopoulos, G., 1980, ‘Higher Education in Developing Countries: A Cost-Benefit Analysis’,
World Bank Staff Working Paper, 440, Washington, D.C: The World Bank.
Sawyerr, A., 2002, ‘Challenges Facing African Universities: Selected Issues’, www.aau.org/english/documents/asa_challengesfigs.pdf. Retrieved on 01/10/ 2005. Retrieved, April 15, 2005.
Sawyerr, A., 2004, ‘Challenges Facing African Universities: Some Issues’, African Studies Review, 47.1: 1-59.
Sicherman, C., 2008, ‘Makerere’s Myths, Makerere’s History: A Retrospect’, JHEA/ RESA, 6.1: 11-39.
Somda, P., 1995, ‘The Relevance of an African University Curriculum to the National Labor Market: The Case of the Faculty of Economics and Management (FASEG) at the University of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso’, Unpublished PhD Dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo.
Some, T.H., 2008, ‘Student Loan Programs in Ghana and Burkina Faso: How to Square the Circle?’, in Ali Abdi & Shibao Guo, eds., Education and Social Development: Global Issues and Analyses, Netherlands: Sense Publishers, 155-170.
Some, T.H., 2006, ‘Cost Sharing and Institutional Instability in Francophone Africa: Student Resistance at the University of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso’, Unpublished PhD Dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo.
Ssebuwufu, P. and Joseph, M., 2002, ‘University Financing and Management Reforms: The Experience of Makerere University’, in Burton L., M. Mwamila, Issa Omari & Eva Mbuya, Financing of Higher Education in Eastern and Southern Africa: Diversifying Revenue and Expanding Accessibility, 86-109.
Ssebuwufu, P. and Joseph M., 2003, ‘Cooperation in Higher Education: Visions, Models and Experiences: What Works’, Paper presented at the Norwegian Council for Higher Education/SIU Conference, 6-7th October, 2003.
Teferra, D., 2004, ‘Lessons of Experience: Reform Initiatives in African Universities’, International Higher Education, Winter 2004, 34, 16-18., http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/newsletter/News34/text009.htm.
Varghese, N.V., 2000, ‘The Limits to Diversification of Sources of Funding in Higher Education’, Paper presented at the IMHE General Conference on Beyond the Entrepreneurial University? Global Challenges and Institutional Responses, 11 – 13 September, 2000, OECD, Paris: UNESCO: IIEP Contributions, 34, 7- 23.
William, S.S., 1997, ‘Revitalizing Universities in Africa: Strategies and Guidelines’, ADEA Working Group on Higher Education’, World Bank, 1997.
Woodhall, M., 2002, ‘Student Loans: Potentials, Problems and Lessons from International Experience’, in Burton L., M. Mwamila, Issa Omari & Eva Mbuya, eds., Financing of Higher Education in Eastern and Southern Africa: Diversifying Revenue and Expanding Accessibility, 110-125.
World Bank, 1988, Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Policies for Adjustment, Revitalization and Expansion, Washington, D.C: the World Bank.
World Bank, 1994, Higher Education: The Lessons of Experience, Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
World Bank, 2000, Higher Education in Developing Countries: Peril and Promise, The Task Force on Higher Education and Society, Washington D.C.: The World Bank.
World Bank, 2002, Constructing Knowledge Societies: New Challenges for Tertiary Education, Washington, D.C.: The International Bank for the Reconstruction and Development.
World Bank, 2010, Financing Higher Education in Africa, Washington, D.C.: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
Yepes, C. de Prado, 2006, ‘World Regionalization of Higher Education: Policy Proposals for International Organizations’, Higher Education Policy, 19, 111- 128, http://www.palgravejournals.com/hep/journal/v19/n1pdf/8300113a.pdf, retrieved July 26, 2006.
Youssef, C., 2005, ‘World Bank Priorities in Education Lending: An Ever-changing Endeavor’, Paterson Review, 6:1- 29.