2 - Violence, Identity Mobilization and the Reimagining of Biafra
Corresponding Author(s) : Ukoha Ukiwo
Africa Development,
Vol. 34 No. 1 (2009): Africa Development: Special Issue on Legacies of Biafra: Violence, Identity and Citizenship in Nigeria
Abstract
The events leading to the Nigeria Civil War marked the triumph of force and violence over dialogue and negotiation as a means of conflict resolution. The success of the Nigerian state in imposing a military solution on the preceding political crisis, and then suppressing the ensuing Biafran rebellion, has had a lasting effect on state–society relations. As a result, the state has not refrained from using violence at the slightest provocation against competing and con- flicting ethno-religious groups. The tendency of the state to exercise domina- tion through the deployment of violence implies an ongoing crisis of state he- gemony rather than a resolution of civil unrest. This article argues that state violence was more important than ethnic divisions in triggering the secessionist attempt of Biafra, and has continued to create rather than resolve ethnic divi- sions across the country. The emergence in post-Civil War Nigeria of regimes that perpetrated or permitted mass violence against restive social groups re- mains critical to understanding the contemporary rise of ethno-nationalist move- ments and waning allegiance to the Nigerian state, particularly among the Igbo. The aim of the article is to underscore the understated salience of state violence in the debates on identity and citizenship in multi-ethnic societies.
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- Adichie, N. C., 2007, Half of A Yellow Sun, London: HarperCollins.
- Agbaje, A., 2002, ‘The War and the Nigerian State’, in E. Osaghae, E. Onwudiwe and R. Suberu, eds, The Nigerian Civil War and its Aftermath, Ibadan: John Archers for Programme on Ethnic and Federal Studies, pp. 26-30.
- Agbu, O., 2004, Ethnic Militias and the Threat to Democracy in Post-Transition Nigeria, Uppsala: Nordic African Institute.
- Alli, C., 2001, The Federal Republic of Nigerian Army: The Siege of a Nation, Lagos: Malthouse Press.
- Amaise, E., 2007, ‘MASSOB: Woman Cries over Alleged Harassment’, This Day, 12 June.
- Anifowose, R., 1982, Violence and Politics in Nigeria: The Tiv and Yoruba Experience, New York: Nok Publishers.
- Chuku, G., 2002, ‘Biafra Women under Fire: Strategies in Organizing Local and Trans- border Trade during the Nigeria Civil War’, in E. Osaghae, E. Onwudiwe and R. Suberu, eds, The Nigerian Civil War and its Aftermath, Ibadan: John Archers for Programme on Ethnic and Federal Studies, pp. 216-28.
- Collier, P., Hoeffler, A. and Rohner, D., 2006, Beyond Greed and Grievance: Feasibility and Civil War, Centre for the Study of African Economies, Working Paper Series 10.
- Egwuonwu, A., 2004, ‘New Strategies for a New War’, Nigeria–Biafra War Memorial Lecture, delivered on 29 May 2004; available at http://www.kwenu.com/biafra/memorial2004/egwuonwu_lecture.htm.
- Fanon, F., 1961, The Wretched of the Earth, Harmondsworth: Penguin.
- Fearon, J. D. and Laitin, D. D., 2000, ‘Violence and the Social Construction of Ethnic Identity’, International Organization 54(4):845-77.
- Gboyega, A., 1997, ‘Nigeria: Conflict Unresolved’, in I. William Zartman, ed., Governance as Conflict Management: Politics and Violence in West Africa, Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, pp. 149-96.
- Hazen, J., 2007, Small Arms, Armed Violence and Insecurity in Nigeria: The Niger Delta Perspective, Small Arms Survey Occasional Paper 40, Geneva.
- Human Rights Watch, 2005, ‘Rest in Pieces’: Police Torture and Custody Deaths in Nigeria, Vol. 17, No. 11(A), New York: Human Rights Watch.
- Ibeanu, O. and Luckham, R., 2006, Niger Delta: Political Violence, Governance and Corporate Responsibility in a Petro-state, Lagos: CDD.
- Igwe, D. and Awoyinfa, M., 2001, Orji Kalu: Leadership Lessons from a Master Strategist, Lagos: McDee Communications.
- Kirk-Greene, A. H. M., 1993, Crisis and Conflict in Nigeria: A Documentary Sourcebook, 1966-1969, Vol. 1, London: Oxford University Press.
- Lewis, P., 2007, Identity, Institutions and Democracy in Nigeria, AFROBAROMETER Working Paper 68.
- Madiebo, A., 1981, The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War, Enugu: Fourth Dimension.
- Meagher, K., 2007, ‘Hijacking Civil Society: The Inside Story of the Bakassi Boys Vigilante Group of South-Eastern Nigeria’, Journal of Modern African Studies 45(1):89-115.
- Mustapha, A. R., 2006, ‘Ethnic Structure, Inequality and Governance of the Public Sector in Nigeria’, in Y. Bangura, ed., Ethnic Inequalities and Public Sector Governance, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 159-77.
- Obumselu, B., 2001, Massacre of Ndi Igbo in 1966: Report of the Justice G.C.M. Onyiuke Tribunal, Lagos: Tolbrook (distributed by the Igbo Youth Movement).
- Odion, L., 2000, ‘OPC versus Obasanjo’, Thisday, 20 October.
- Odumegwu-Ojukwu, E., 1989, Because I Am Involved, Ibadan: Spectrum Books.
- Okocha, E., 1994, Blood on the Niger: An Untold Story of the Nigerian Civil War, Washington, DC; Lagos: USA Africa; GOM SLAM.
- Omeje, K., 2005, ‘Enyimba Enyi: The Come-back of Igbo Nationalism in Nigeria’, Review of African Political Economy 32(103).
- Osaghae, E., 1998, Crippled Giant: Nigeria Since Independence, London: Hurst.
- Shettima, K.A., 1997, ‘Ecology, Identity, Developmentalism and Displacement in Northern Nigeria’, in P. Lovejoy and P.A.T. Williams, eds, Displacement and the Politics of Violence in Nigeria, Leiden: Brill, pp. 67-80.
- Strassberg, B., 1998, Talking Across Boundaries: Cultures of Violence, Culture of Peace, University of Notre Dame, IN: The John Kroe Institute for International Peace.
- Stremlau, J., 1977, The International Politics of the Nigerian Civil War, 1967- 1970, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
- Ukiwo, U., 2003a, ‘The Politicization of Bakassi Boys in Eastern Nigeria’, in T. Babawale, ed., Ethnic Militia, Urban Violence and the Challenges of Democratic Consolidation in Nigeria, Lagos: Malthouse Press, pp. 130-51.
- Ukiwo, U., 2003b, ‘Politics, Ethno-religious Conflicts and Democratic Consolidation in Nigeria’, The Journal of Modern African Studies 41(1):115-38.
- Watts, M., 1999, ‘Petro-violence: Some Thoughts on Community, Extraction and Political Ecology’, Berkeley Workshops on Environmental Politics, available at http://repositories.cdlib.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=iis.
- Williams, I., 2002, ‘The Nigerian Civil War: A Lesson in Breakdown of Democratic Control of the Military and Military Professionalism’, in E. Osaghae, E. Onwudiwe and R. Suberu, eds, The Nigerian Civil War and its Aftermath, Ibadan: John Archers for Programme on Ethnic and Federal Studies, pp. 100-13.
- Williams, P. A. T., 1997, ‘Religion, Violence and Displacement in Nigeria’, in P. Lovejoy and P. A. T., Williams, eds, Displacement and the Politics of Violence in Nigeria, Leiden: Brill, pp. 33-49.
- Zalik, A., 2004, ‘“Petro-violence” and “Partnership Development”’, Review of African Political Economy 31(101):401-24.
References
Adichie, N. C., 2007, Half of A Yellow Sun, London: HarperCollins.
Agbaje, A., 2002, ‘The War and the Nigerian State’, in E. Osaghae, E. Onwudiwe and R. Suberu, eds, The Nigerian Civil War and its Aftermath, Ibadan: John Archers for Programme on Ethnic and Federal Studies, pp. 26-30.
Agbu, O., 2004, Ethnic Militias and the Threat to Democracy in Post-Transition Nigeria, Uppsala: Nordic African Institute.
Alli, C., 2001, The Federal Republic of Nigerian Army: The Siege of a Nation, Lagos: Malthouse Press.
Amaise, E., 2007, ‘MASSOB: Woman Cries over Alleged Harassment’, This Day, 12 June.
Anifowose, R., 1982, Violence and Politics in Nigeria: The Tiv and Yoruba Experience, New York: Nok Publishers.
Chuku, G., 2002, ‘Biafra Women under Fire: Strategies in Organizing Local and Trans- border Trade during the Nigeria Civil War’, in E. Osaghae, E. Onwudiwe and R. Suberu, eds, The Nigerian Civil War and its Aftermath, Ibadan: John Archers for Programme on Ethnic and Federal Studies, pp. 216-28.
Collier, P., Hoeffler, A. and Rohner, D., 2006, Beyond Greed and Grievance: Feasibility and Civil War, Centre for the Study of African Economies, Working Paper Series 10.
Egwuonwu, A., 2004, ‘New Strategies for a New War’, Nigeria–Biafra War Memorial Lecture, delivered on 29 May 2004; available at http://www.kwenu.com/biafra/memorial2004/egwuonwu_lecture.htm.
Fanon, F., 1961, The Wretched of the Earth, Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Fearon, J. D. and Laitin, D. D., 2000, ‘Violence and the Social Construction of Ethnic Identity’, International Organization 54(4):845-77.
Gboyega, A., 1997, ‘Nigeria: Conflict Unresolved’, in I. William Zartman, ed., Governance as Conflict Management: Politics and Violence in West Africa, Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, pp. 149-96.
Hazen, J., 2007, Small Arms, Armed Violence and Insecurity in Nigeria: The Niger Delta Perspective, Small Arms Survey Occasional Paper 40, Geneva.
Human Rights Watch, 2005, ‘Rest in Pieces’: Police Torture and Custody Deaths in Nigeria, Vol. 17, No. 11(A), New York: Human Rights Watch.
Ibeanu, O. and Luckham, R., 2006, Niger Delta: Political Violence, Governance and Corporate Responsibility in a Petro-state, Lagos: CDD.
Igwe, D. and Awoyinfa, M., 2001, Orji Kalu: Leadership Lessons from a Master Strategist, Lagos: McDee Communications.
Kirk-Greene, A. H. M., 1993, Crisis and Conflict in Nigeria: A Documentary Sourcebook, 1966-1969, Vol. 1, London: Oxford University Press.
Lewis, P., 2007, Identity, Institutions and Democracy in Nigeria, AFROBAROMETER Working Paper 68.
Madiebo, A., 1981, The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War, Enugu: Fourth Dimension.
Meagher, K., 2007, ‘Hijacking Civil Society: The Inside Story of the Bakassi Boys Vigilante Group of South-Eastern Nigeria’, Journal of Modern African Studies 45(1):89-115.
Mustapha, A. R., 2006, ‘Ethnic Structure, Inequality and Governance of the Public Sector in Nigeria’, in Y. Bangura, ed., Ethnic Inequalities and Public Sector Governance, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 159-77.
Obumselu, B., 2001, Massacre of Ndi Igbo in 1966: Report of the Justice G.C.M. Onyiuke Tribunal, Lagos: Tolbrook (distributed by the Igbo Youth Movement).
Odion, L., 2000, ‘OPC versus Obasanjo’, Thisday, 20 October.
Odumegwu-Ojukwu, E., 1989, Because I Am Involved, Ibadan: Spectrum Books.
Okocha, E., 1994, Blood on the Niger: An Untold Story of the Nigerian Civil War, Washington, DC; Lagos: USA Africa; GOM SLAM.
Omeje, K., 2005, ‘Enyimba Enyi: The Come-back of Igbo Nationalism in Nigeria’, Review of African Political Economy 32(103).
Osaghae, E., 1998, Crippled Giant: Nigeria Since Independence, London: Hurst.
Shettima, K.A., 1997, ‘Ecology, Identity, Developmentalism and Displacement in Northern Nigeria’, in P. Lovejoy and P.A.T. Williams, eds, Displacement and the Politics of Violence in Nigeria, Leiden: Brill, pp. 67-80.
Strassberg, B., 1998, Talking Across Boundaries: Cultures of Violence, Culture of Peace, University of Notre Dame, IN: The John Kroe Institute for International Peace.
Stremlau, J., 1977, The International Politics of the Nigerian Civil War, 1967- 1970, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Ukiwo, U., 2003a, ‘The Politicization of Bakassi Boys in Eastern Nigeria’, in T. Babawale, ed., Ethnic Militia, Urban Violence and the Challenges of Democratic Consolidation in Nigeria, Lagos: Malthouse Press, pp. 130-51.
Ukiwo, U., 2003b, ‘Politics, Ethno-religious Conflicts and Democratic Consolidation in Nigeria’, The Journal of Modern African Studies 41(1):115-38.
Watts, M., 1999, ‘Petro-violence: Some Thoughts on Community, Extraction and Political Ecology’, Berkeley Workshops on Environmental Politics, available at http://repositories.cdlib.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=iis.
Williams, I., 2002, ‘The Nigerian Civil War: A Lesson in Breakdown of Democratic Control of the Military and Military Professionalism’, in E. Osaghae, E. Onwudiwe and R. Suberu, eds, The Nigerian Civil War and its Aftermath, Ibadan: John Archers for Programme on Ethnic and Federal Studies, pp. 100-13.
Williams, P. A. T., 1997, ‘Religion, Violence and Displacement in Nigeria’, in P. Lovejoy and P. A. T., Williams, eds, Displacement and the Politics of Violence in Nigeria, Leiden: Brill, pp. 33-49.
Zalik, A., 2004, ‘“Petro-violence” and “Partnership Development”’, Review of African Political Economy 31(101):401-24.