2 - Violence, Identity Mobilization and the Reimagining of Biafra
Corresponding Author(s) : Ukoha Ukiwo
Afrique et développement,
Vol. 34 No 1 (2009): Afrique et développement: Special Issue on Legacies of Biafra: Violence, Identity and Citizenship in Nigeria
Résumé
Les événements qui ont conduit à la guerre civile au Nigéria ont marqué le triomphe de la force et de la violence sur le dialogue et la négociation comme moyen de résolution des conflits. Le succès de l’État nigérian dans l’imposition d’une solution militaire à la précédente crise politique, puis dans la répression de la rébellion Biafra, a eu un effet durable sur les relations entre l’État et la société. En conséquence, l’État n’a pas renoncé à utiliser la violence contre les groupes ethno-religieux concurrents et conflictuels, à la moindre provocation. La tendance de l’État à exercer la domination par le déploiement de la violence implique une crise continue de l’hégémonie de l’État plutôt qu’une résolution de troubles civils. Cet article soutient que la violence d’Etat était plus importante que les divisions ethniques dans le déclenchement de la tentative de sécession du Biafra, et a continué à créer, plutôt que de résoudre, les divisions ethniques dans tout le pays. L’émergence dans le Nigeria de l’après-guerre civile de régimes qui ont perpétré ou autorisé la violence de masse contre des groupes sociaux agités demeure un facteur essentiel pour la compréhension de la montée contemporaine de mouvements nationalistes ethniques et du déclin de l’allégeance à l’État nigérian, en particulier chez les Igbo. L’objectif de cet article est de mettre en exergue l’importance sous-estimée de la violence d’État dans les débats sur l’identité et la citoyenneté dans les sociétés multiethniques.
Mots-clés
Télécharger la référence bibliographique
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- Adichie, N. C., 2007, Half of A Yellow Sun, London: HarperCollins.
- Agbaje, A., 2002, ‘The War and the Nigerian State’, in E. Osaghae, E. Onwudiwe and R. Suberu, eds, The Nigerian Civil War and its Aftermath, Ibadan: John Archers for Programme on Ethnic and Federal Studies, pp. 26-30.
- Agbu, O., 2004, Ethnic Militias and the Threat to Democracy in Post-Transition Nigeria, Uppsala: Nordic African Institute.
- Alli, C., 2001, The Federal Republic of Nigerian Army: The Siege of a Nation, Lagos: Malthouse Press.
- Amaise, E., 2007, ‘MASSOB: Woman Cries over Alleged Harassment’, This Day, 12 June.
- Anifowose, R., 1982, Violence and Politics in Nigeria: The Tiv and Yoruba Experience, New York: Nok Publishers.
- Chuku, G., 2002, ‘Biafra Women under Fire: Strategies in Organizing Local and Trans- border Trade during the Nigeria Civil War’, in E. Osaghae, E. Onwudiwe and R. Suberu, eds, The Nigerian Civil War and its Aftermath, Ibadan: John Archers for Programme on Ethnic and Federal Studies, pp. 216-28.
- Collier, P., Hoeffler, A. and Rohner, D., 2006, Beyond Greed and Grievance: Feasibility and Civil War, Centre for the Study of African Economies, Working Paper Series 10.
- Egwuonwu, A., 2004, ‘New Strategies for a New War’, Nigeria–Biafra War Memorial Lecture, delivered on 29 May 2004; available at http://www.kwenu.com/biafra/memorial2004/egwuonwu_lecture.htm.
- Fanon, F., 1961, The Wretched of the Earth, Harmondsworth: Penguin.
- Fearon, J. D. and Laitin, D. D., 2000, ‘Violence and the Social Construction of Ethnic Identity’, International Organization 54(4):845-77.
- Gboyega, A., 1997, ‘Nigeria: Conflict Unresolved’, in I. William Zartman, ed., Governance as Conflict Management: Politics and Violence in West Africa, Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, pp. 149-96.
- Hazen, J., 2007, Small Arms, Armed Violence and Insecurity in Nigeria: The Niger Delta Perspective, Small Arms Survey Occasional Paper 40, Geneva.
- Human Rights Watch, 2005, ‘Rest in Pieces’: Police Torture and Custody Deaths in Nigeria, Vol. 17, No. 11(A), New York: Human Rights Watch.
- Ibeanu, O. and Luckham, R., 2006, Niger Delta: Political Violence, Governance and Corporate Responsibility in a Petro-state, Lagos: CDD.
- Igwe, D. and Awoyinfa, M., 2001, Orji Kalu: Leadership Lessons from a Master Strategist, Lagos: McDee Communications.
- Kirk-Greene, A. H. M., 1993, Crisis and Conflict in Nigeria: A Documentary Sourcebook, 1966-1969, Vol. 1, London: Oxford University Press.
- Lewis, P., 2007, Identity, Institutions and Democracy in Nigeria, AFROBAROMETER Working Paper 68.
- Madiebo, A., 1981, The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War, Enugu: Fourth Dimension.
- Meagher, K., 2007, ‘Hijacking Civil Society: The Inside Story of the Bakassi Boys Vigilante Group of South-Eastern Nigeria’, Journal of Modern African Studies 45(1):89-115.
- Mustapha, A. R., 2006, ‘Ethnic Structure, Inequality and Governance of the Public Sector in Nigeria’, in Y. Bangura, ed., Ethnic Inequalities and Public Sector Governance, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 159-77.
- Obumselu, B., 2001, Massacre of Ndi Igbo in 1966: Report of the Justice G.C.M. Onyiuke Tribunal, Lagos: Tolbrook (distributed by the Igbo Youth Movement).
- Odion, L., 2000, ‘OPC versus Obasanjo’, Thisday, 20 October.
- Odumegwu-Ojukwu, E., 1989, Because I Am Involved, Ibadan: Spectrum Books.
- Okocha, E., 1994, Blood on the Niger: An Untold Story of the Nigerian Civil War, Washington, DC; Lagos: USA Africa; GOM SLAM.
- Omeje, K., 2005, ‘Enyimba Enyi: The Come-back of Igbo Nationalism in Nigeria’, Review of African Political Economy 32(103).
- Osaghae, E., 1998, Crippled Giant: Nigeria Since Independence, London: Hurst.
- Shettima, K.A., 1997, ‘Ecology, Identity, Developmentalism and Displacement in Northern Nigeria’, in P. Lovejoy and P.A.T. Williams, eds, Displacement and the Politics of Violence in Nigeria, Leiden: Brill, pp. 67-80.
- Strassberg, B., 1998, Talking Across Boundaries: Cultures of Violence, Culture of Peace, University of Notre Dame, IN: The John Kroe Institute for International Peace.
- Stremlau, J., 1977, The International Politics of the Nigerian Civil War, 1967- 1970, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
- Ukiwo, U., 2003a, ‘The Politicization of Bakassi Boys in Eastern Nigeria’, in T. Babawale, ed., Ethnic Militia, Urban Violence and the Challenges of Democratic Consolidation in Nigeria, Lagos: Malthouse Press, pp. 130-51.
- Ukiwo, U., 2003b, ‘Politics, Ethno-religious Conflicts and Democratic Consolidation in Nigeria’, The Journal of Modern African Studies 41(1):115-38.
- Watts, M., 1999, ‘Petro-violence: Some Thoughts on Community, Extraction and Political Ecology’, Berkeley Workshops on Environmental Politics, available at http://repositories.cdlib.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=iis.
- Williams, I., 2002, ‘The Nigerian Civil War: A Lesson in Breakdown of Democratic Control of the Military and Military Professionalism’, in E. Osaghae, E. Onwudiwe and R. Suberu, eds, The Nigerian Civil War and its Aftermath, Ibadan: John Archers for Programme on Ethnic and Federal Studies, pp. 100-13.
- Williams, P. A. T., 1997, ‘Religion, Violence and Displacement in Nigeria’, in P. Lovejoy and P. A. T., Williams, eds, Displacement and the Politics of Violence in Nigeria, Leiden: Brill, pp. 33-49.
- Zalik, A., 2004, ‘“Petro-violence” and “Partnership Development”’, Review of African Political Economy 31(101):401-24.
Les références
Adichie, N. C., 2007, Half of A Yellow Sun, London: HarperCollins.
Agbaje, A., 2002, ‘The War and the Nigerian State’, in E. Osaghae, E. Onwudiwe and R. Suberu, eds, The Nigerian Civil War and its Aftermath, Ibadan: John Archers for Programme on Ethnic and Federal Studies, pp. 26-30.
Agbu, O., 2004, Ethnic Militias and the Threat to Democracy in Post-Transition Nigeria, Uppsala: Nordic African Institute.
Alli, C., 2001, The Federal Republic of Nigerian Army: The Siege of a Nation, Lagos: Malthouse Press.
Amaise, E., 2007, ‘MASSOB: Woman Cries over Alleged Harassment’, This Day, 12 June.
Anifowose, R., 1982, Violence and Politics in Nigeria: The Tiv and Yoruba Experience, New York: Nok Publishers.
Chuku, G., 2002, ‘Biafra Women under Fire: Strategies in Organizing Local and Trans- border Trade during the Nigeria Civil War’, in E. Osaghae, E. Onwudiwe and R. Suberu, eds, The Nigerian Civil War and its Aftermath, Ibadan: John Archers for Programme on Ethnic and Federal Studies, pp. 216-28.
Collier, P., Hoeffler, A. and Rohner, D., 2006, Beyond Greed and Grievance: Feasibility and Civil War, Centre for the Study of African Economies, Working Paper Series 10.
Egwuonwu, A., 2004, ‘New Strategies for a New War’, Nigeria–Biafra War Memorial Lecture, delivered on 29 May 2004; available at http://www.kwenu.com/biafra/memorial2004/egwuonwu_lecture.htm.
Fanon, F., 1961, The Wretched of the Earth, Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Fearon, J. D. and Laitin, D. D., 2000, ‘Violence and the Social Construction of Ethnic Identity’, International Organization 54(4):845-77.
Gboyega, A., 1997, ‘Nigeria: Conflict Unresolved’, in I. William Zartman, ed., Governance as Conflict Management: Politics and Violence in West Africa, Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, pp. 149-96.
Hazen, J., 2007, Small Arms, Armed Violence and Insecurity in Nigeria: The Niger Delta Perspective, Small Arms Survey Occasional Paper 40, Geneva.
Human Rights Watch, 2005, ‘Rest in Pieces’: Police Torture and Custody Deaths in Nigeria, Vol. 17, No. 11(A), New York: Human Rights Watch.
Ibeanu, O. and Luckham, R., 2006, Niger Delta: Political Violence, Governance and Corporate Responsibility in a Petro-state, Lagos: CDD.
Igwe, D. and Awoyinfa, M., 2001, Orji Kalu: Leadership Lessons from a Master Strategist, Lagos: McDee Communications.
Kirk-Greene, A. H. M., 1993, Crisis and Conflict in Nigeria: A Documentary Sourcebook, 1966-1969, Vol. 1, London: Oxford University Press.
Lewis, P., 2007, Identity, Institutions and Democracy in Nigeria, AFROBAROMETER Working Paper 68.
Madiebo, A., 1981, The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War, Enugu: Fourth Dimension.
Meagher, K., 2007, ‘Hijacking Civil Society: The Inside Story of the Bakassi Boys Vigilante Group of South-Eastern Nigeria’, Journal of Modern African Studies 45(1):89-115.
Mustapha, A. R., 2006, ‘Ethnic Structure, Inequality and Governance of the Public Sector in Nigeria’, in Y. Bangura, ed., Ethnic Inequalities and Public Sector Governance, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 159-77.
Obumselu, B., 2001, Massacre of Ndi Igbo in 1966: Report of the Justice G.C.M. Onyiuke Tribunal, Lagos: Tolbrook (distributed by the Igbo Youth Movement).
Odion, L., 2000, ‘OPC versus Obasanjo’, Thisday, 20 October.
Odumegwu-Ojukwu, E., 1989, Because I Am Involved, Ibadan: Spectrum Books.
Okocha, E., 1994, Blood on the Niger: An Untold Story of the Nigerian Civil War, Washington, DC; Lagos: USA Africa; GOM SLAM.
Omeje, K., 2005, ‘Enyimba Enyi: The Come-back of Igbo Nationalism in Nigeria’, Review of African Political Economy 32(103).
Osaghae, E., 1998, Crippled Giant: Nigeria Since Independence, London: Hurst.
Shettima, K.A., 1997, ‘Ecology, Identity, Developmentalism and Displacement in Northern Nigeria’, in P. Lovejoy and P.A.T. Williams, eds, Displacement and the Politics of Violence in Nigeria, Leiden: Brill, pp. 67-80.
Strassberg, B., 1998, Talking Across Boundaries: Cultures of Violence, Culture of Peace, University of Notre Dame, IN: The John Kroe Institute for International Peace.
Stremlau, J., 1977, The International Politics of the Nigerian Civil War, 1967- 1970, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Ukiwo, U., 2003a, ‘The Politicization of Bakassi Boys in Eastern Nigeria’, in T. Babawale, ed., Ethnic Militia, Urban Violence and the Challenges of Democratic Consolidation in Nigeria, Lagos: Malthouse Press, pp. 130-51.
Ukiwo, U., 2003b, ‘Politics, Ethno-religious Conflicts and Democratic Consolidation in Nigeria’, The Journal of Modern African Studies 41(1):115-38.
Watts, M., 1999, ‘Petro-violence: Some Thoughts on Community, Extraction and Political Ecology’, Berkeley Workshops on Environmental Politics, available at http://repositories.cdlib.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=iis.
Williams, I., 2002, ‘The Nigerian Civil War: A Lesson in Breakdown of Democratic Control of the Military and Military Professionalism’, in E. Osaghae, E. Onwudiwe and R. Suberu, eds, The Nigerian Civil War and its Aftermath, Ibadan: John Archers for Programme on Ethnic and Federal Studies, pp. 100-13.
Williams, P. A. T., 1997, ‘Religion, Violence and Displacement in Nigeria’, in P. Lovejoy and P. A. T., Williams, eds, Displacement and the Politics of Violence in Nigeria, Leiden: Brill, pp. 33-49.
Zalik, A., 2004, ‘“Petro-violence” and “Partnership Development”’, Review of African Political Economy 31(101):401-24.