6 - Does Having More Children Reduce Women’s Labor Market Participation? Evidence From Kenya
Corresponding Author(s) : Martin Mulwa
Africa Development,
Vol. 49 No. 1 (2024): Africa Development
Abstract
Using the Kenya Demographic Health Survey 2014, this article estimates the motherhood penalty in Kenya’s labour market. To control for endogeneity, the study used mixed-sibling sex preference to explain the exogenous variation in fertility. The results from the auxiliary regression show the existence of ‘mixed- sibling’ sex preference in Kenya. The probability of having an additional child increases by 24.77 per cent for women whose first two children are the same sex. The instrumental variable model shows that the exogenous variation in fertility afforded by mixed-sibling sex preference significantly reduces the probability of women’s labour supply for decent work by 4.29 per cent. The effect of fertility is heterogeneous across age groups. The article finds that labour supply for decent work reduces by 6.08 per cent and 8.29 per cent for women in the age groups 15–24 and 24–34, respectively. Policy incentives such as providing access to affordable childcare services are critical in reducing the motherhood penalty.
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- Adda, J., Dustmann, C., and Stevens, K., 2017, ‘The career costs of children’, Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 125, pp. 293–337.
- Aguero, J.M., and Marks, M.S., 2008, ‘Motherhood and female labour force participation: evidence from infertility shocks’, American Economic Review, Vol. 98, No. 2, pp. 500–504.
- Angrist, J., and Evans, W., 1998, ‘Children and their parents’ labour supply: evidence from exogenous variation in family size’, American Economic Review, Vol. 88, No. 3, pp. 450–577.
- Basu, A., and Das Gupta, M., 2001, ‘Family systems and the preferred sex of children’, in Hoem, J., ed., International Encyclopedia of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Amsterdam: Elsevier.
- Baumann, F., 2021, ‘The Next Frontier – Human Development and the Anthropocene: UNDP Human Development Report 2020’, Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, Vol. 63, No. 3, pp. 34–40.
- Becker, G.S., 1991, A Treatise on the Family. Enlarged Edition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
- Blau, F.D., and Grossberg, A. J., 1992, ‘Maternal Labour Supply and Children’s Cognitive Development’, Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 74, No. 3, pp. 474–81.
- Bloom, D.E., Canning, D., Fink, G., and Finlay, J. E., 2009, ‘Fertility, female labour force participation and the demographic dividend’, Journal of Economic Growth, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 79–101.
- Browning, M., 1992, ‘Children and household economic behavior’, Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 1434–1475.
- Chun, H., and Oh, J., 2002, ‘An instrumental variable estimate of the effect of fertility on the labour force participation of married women’, Applied Economics Letters, Vol. 9, No. 10, pp. 631–634.
- Conley, T.G., Hansen, C.B., and Rossi, P. E., 2012, ‘Plausibly exogenous’, Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 94, No. 1, pp. 260–272.
- Cruces, G., and Galiani, S., 2007, ‘Fertility and female labour supply in Latin America: New causal evidence’, Labour Economics, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 565–573.
- Goldin, C., 2014, ‘A grand gender convergence: Its last chapter’, American Economic Review, 104, 1091–1119.
- Gronau, R., 1977, ‘Leisure, home production and work – the theory of the allocation of time revisited’, Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 85, No. 6, pp. 1099–1123.
- He, X., and Zhu, R., 2016, ‘Fertility and Female Labour Force Participation: Causal Evidence from Urban China’, The Manchester School, Vol. 84, No. 5, pp. 664–674.
- International Labour Organization (ILO), 2018, World employment social outlook: Trends for Women, Geneva: ILO.
- International Labour Organization (ILO), 2019, World employment social outlook: Trends 2019, Geneva: ILO.
- Jacobsen, J.P., Pearce III, J.W., and Rosenbloom, J.L., 1999, ‘The effects of childbearing on married women’s labour supply and earnings: using twin births as a natural experiment’, Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 449–474.
- Kabubo‐Mariara, J., 2003, Wage determination and the gender wage gap in Kenya: Any evidence of gender discrimination, African Economic Research Consortium Research Paper No. 132.
- Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS), 2015, Kenya Demographic Health Survey, Nairobi.
- Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS), 2018, Kenya integrated household budget survey, 2015/16. Nairobi.
- Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS), 2020a, Statistical Abstract. Nairobi. Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS), 2020b, Women’s Empowerment in Kenya: Developing a Measure, Nairobi: Kenya National Bureau of Statistics.
- Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS), 2022, Economic Survey. Nairobi.
- Kuépié, M., 2016, ‘Determinants of labour market gender inequalities in Cameroon, Senegal and Mali: the role of human capital and fertility burden’, Canadian Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 37, No. 1, pp. 66–82.
- Lokshin, M.M., Glinskaya, E., and Garcia, M., 2004, ‘The effect of early childhood development programmes on women’s labour force participation and older children’s schooling in Kenya’, Journal of African Economies, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 240–276.
- Mulwa, M., and Gichana, T., 2020, ‘Does education reduce gender differentials in labour market participation? A Kenyan perspective’, African Development Review, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 446–458.
- Nakamura, A., and Nakamura, M., 1992, ‘The econometrics of female labour supply and children’, Econometric Reviews, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 1–71.
- Nicita, A., and Razzaz, S., 2003, Who benefits and how much? How gender affects welfare impacts of a booming textile industry, Washington DC: The World Bank.
- Nordman, C.J. and Wolff, F.C., 2009, ‘Is there a glass ceiling in Morocco? Evidence from matched worker–firm data’, Journal of African Economies, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 592–633.
- Nordman, C.J., Robilliard, A.S., and Roubaud, F., 2011, ‘Gender and ethnic earnings gaps in seven West African cities’, Labour Economics, Vol. 18, S132–S145.
- Rosenzweig, M.R., and Wolpin, K.I., 1980, ‘Life-cycle labour supply and fertility: Causal inferences from household models’, Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 88, No. 2, pp. 328–348.
- Rosenzweig, M.R., and Wolpin, K.I., 2000, ‘Natural ‘natural experiments’’ in economics, Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 38, No. 4, pp. 827–874.
- Siphambe, H. K., and Thokweng‐Bakwena, M., 2001, ‘The wage gap between men and women in Botswana’s formal labour market’, Journal of African Economies, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 127–142.
- Totouom, A., Mboutchouang, V.D.P., and Kaffo Fotio, H., 2018, ‘The Effects of Education on Labour Force Participation in Cameroon: A Gender Perspective’, African Development Review, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 45–55.
- Waldfogel, J., 1998, ‘Understanding the ‘family gap’ in pay for women with children’, Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 137–156.
- Wambugu, A., 2011, ‘The effects of educational attainment on employment outcomes in Kenya’, International Journal of Educational Administration and Policy Studies, Vol. 3, No. 7, pp. 94–102.
- Westoff, C.F., Bietsch, K., and Koffman, D., 2013, ‘Indicators of trends in fertility in sub-Saharan Africa’, Demographic Health Survey Analytical Studies, Vol. 34.
- Willis, R.J., 1987, ‘What have we learned from the economics of the family?’ The American Economic Review, Vol. 77, No. 2, pp. 68–81.
References
Adda, J., Dustmann, C., and Stevens, K., 2017, ‘The career costs of children’, Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 125, pp. 293–337.
Aguero, J.M., and Marks, M.S., 2008, ‘Motherhood and female labour force participation: evidence from infertility shocks’, American Economic Review, Vol. 98, No. 2, pp. 500–504.
Angrist, J., and Evans, W., 1998, ‘Children and their parents’ labour supply: evidence from exogenous variation in family size’, American Economic Review, Vol. 88, No. 3, pp. 450–577.
Basu, A., and Das Gupta, M., 2001, ‘Family systems and the preferred sex of children’, in Hoem, J., ed., International Encyclopedia of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Baumann, F., 2021, ‘The Next Frontier – Human Development and the Anthropocene: UNDP Human Development Report 2020’, Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, Vol. 63, No. 3, pp. 34–40.
Becker, G.S., 1991, A Treatise on the Family. Enlarged Edition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Blau, F.D., and Grossberg, A. J., 1992, ‘Maternal Labour Supply and Children’s Cognitive Development’, Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 74, No. 3, pp. 474–81.
Bloom, D.E., Canning, D., Fink, G., and Finlay, J. E., 2009, ‘Fertility, female labour force participation and the demographic dividend’, Journal of Economic Growth, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 79–101.
Browning, M., 1992, ‘Children and household economic behavior’, Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 1434–1475.
Chun, H., and Oh, J., 2002, ‘An instrumental variable estimate of the effect of fertility on the labour force participation of married women’, Applied Economics Letters, Vol. 9, No. 10, pp. 631–634.
Conley, T.G., Hansen, C.B., and Rossi, P. E., 2012, ‘Plausibly exogenous’, Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 94, No. 1, pp. 260–272.
Cruces, G., and Galiani, S., 2007, ‘Fertility and female labour supply in Latin America: New causal evidence’, Labour Economics, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 565–573.
Goldin, C., 2014, ‘A grand gender convergence: Its last chapter’, American Economic Review, 104, 1091–1119.
Gronau, R., 1977, ‘Leisure, home production and work – the theory of the allocation of time revisited’, Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 85, No. 6, pp. 1099–1123.
He, X., and Zhu, R., 2016, ‘Fertility and Female Labour Force Participation: Causal Evidence from Urban China’, The Manchester School, Vol. 84, No. 5, pp. 664–674.
International Labour Organization (ILO), 2018, World employment social outlook: Trends for Women, Geneva: ILO.
International Labour Organization (ILO), 2019, World employment social outlook: Trends 2019, Geneva: ILO.
Jacobsen, J.P., Pearce III, J.W., and Rosenbloom, J.L., 1999, ‘The effects of childbearing on married women’s labour supply and earnings: using twin births as a natural experiment’, Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 449–474.
Kabubo‐Mariara, J., 2003, Wage determination and the gender wage gap in Kenya: Any evidence of gender discrimination, African Economic Research Consortium Research Paper No. 132.
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS), 2015, Kenya Demographic Health Survey, Nairobi.
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS), 2018, Kenya integrated household budget survey, 2015/16. Nairobi.
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS), 2020a, Statistical Abstract. Nairobi. Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS), 2020b, Women’s Empowerment in Kenya: Developing a Measure, Nairobi: Kenya National Bureau of Statistics.
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS), 2022, Economic Survey. Nairobi.
Kuépié, M., 2016, ‘Determinants of labour market gender inequalities in Cameroon, Senegal and Mali: the role of human capital and fertility burden’, Canadian Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 37, No. 1, pp. 66–82.
Lokshin, M.M., Glinskaya, E., and Garcia, M., 2004, ‘The effect of early childhood development programmes on women’s labour force participation and older children’s schooling in Kenya’, Journal of African Economies, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 240–276.
Mulwa, M., and Gichana, T., 2020, ‘Does education reduce gender differentials in labour market participation? A Kenyan perspective’, African Development Review, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 446–458.
Nakamura, A., and Nakamura, M., 1992, ‘The econometrics of female labour supply and children’, Econometric Reviews, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 1–71.
Nicita, A., and Razzaz, S., 2003, Who benefits and how much? How gender affects welfare impacts of a booming textile industry, Washington DC: The World Bank.
Nordman, C.J. and Wolff, F.C., 2009, ‘Is there a glass ceiling in Morocco? Evidence from matched worker–firm data’, Journal of African Economies, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 592–633.
Nordman, C.J., Robilliard, A.S., and Roubaud, F., 2011, ‘Gender and ethnic earnings gaps in seven West African cities’, Labour Economics, Vol. 18, S132–S145.
Rosenzweig, M.R., and Wolpin, K.I., 1980, ‘Life-cycle labour supply and fertility: Causal inferences from household models’, Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 88, No. 2, pp. 328–348.
Rosenzweig, M.R., and Wolpin, K.I., 2000, ‘Natural ‘natural experiments’’ in economics, Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 38, No. 4, pp. 827–874.
Siphambe, H. K., and Thokweng‐Bakwena, M., 2001, ‘The wage gap between men and women in Botswana’s formal labour market’, Journal of African Economies, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 127–142.
Totouom, A., Mboutchouang, V.D.P., and Kaffo Fotio, H., 2018, ‘The Effects of Education on Labour Force Participation in Cameroon: A Gender Perspective’, African Development Review, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 45–55.
Waldfogel, J., 1998, ‘Understanding the ‘family gap’ in pay for women with children’, Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 137–156.
Wambugu, A., 2011, ‘The effects of educational attainment on employment outcomes in Kenya’, International Journal of Educational Administration and Policy Studies, Vol. 3, No. 7, pp. 94–102.
Westoff, C.F., Bietsch, K., and Koffman, D., 2013, ‘Indicators of trends in fertility in sub-Saharan Africa’, Demographic Health Survey Analytical Studies, Vol. 34.
Willis, R.J., 1987, ‘What have we learned from the economics of the family?’ The American Economic Review, Vol. 77, No. 2, pp. 68–81.