3 - The Curse or Fertility of Land Clearing: How Migrant Labour Modified Gender-Based Division of Labour in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania
Corresponding Author(s) : Angelus Mnenuka
Afrique et développement,
Vol. 47 No 4 (2022): Afrique et développement
Résumé
La division du travail basée sur le sexe est un système pratiqué dans le monde entier ; à l’époque précoloniale, les hautes terres du sud de la Tanzanie ne faisaient pas exception. Puisque la division du travail fondée sur le sexe était établie par la tradition, l’on craignait que la violation de normes culturelles transgressant les limites du travail n’entraîne une malédiction. Malgré cela, les femmes ont assumé le fardeau supplémentaire de tâches laissées par leurs époux migrants. Cela comprenait le défrichage des terres, qui était principalement une tâche d’homme, et impliquait donc d’enfreindre les normes culturelles. Puisque les femmes n’étaient traditionnellement pas en charge du défrichage des terres, elles ont utilisé diverses stratégies pour contourner cet interdit, comme payer des hommes pour effectuer cette tâche. Dans cet article, nous soutenons que cette décision, malgré sa complexité, a favorisé la prise de décision par des femmes et leur a permis de jouir d’une certaine autonomie dans la gestion de toutes les étapes de la culture. Pour analyser les données, nous utilisons le cadre d’analyse de genre, qui reflète les questions centrales de genre. Les résultats montrent qu’en dehors d’autres mécanismes, le phénomène du travail migrant des hommes a renforcé le statut des femmes, ainsi que leur pouvoir de décision et leur autonomie. Par conséquent, les femmes en ont bénéficié – pour elles, c’était une situation de « fécondité » plutôt qu’une malédiction.
Mots-clés
Télécharger la référence bibliographique
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- Adepoju, A., 1995, Migration in Africa: An Overview, in Baker, J. and Aida, T. A., eds., The Migration Experience in Africa, Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, pp. 87–108.
- Afonja, S., 1981, Changing Modes of Production and the Sexual Division of Labour among the Yoruba, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, Vol. 7, pp. 299–313.
- Alahira, H. A., 2014, The Origin and Nature of Traditional Gender Division of Labour among the Berom of the Jos Plateau in Northern Nigeria, International Journal of Gender & Women’s Studies, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 49–62.
- Kinunda, N., 2017, Negotiating Women’s Labour: Women Farmers, State, and Society in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania, 1885–2000, PhD thesis, University of Göttingen.
- Baumann, H., 1928, The Division of Work According to Sex in African Hoe Culture, Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 289–319.
- Boehm, D. A., 2008, ‘Now I am a Man and a Woman!’: Gendered Moves and Migrations in a Transnational Mexican Community, Latin American Perspectives, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 16–30.
- Brink, J. H., 1991, The Effect of Emigration of Husbands of Husbands on the Status of Their Wives: An Egyptian Case, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 201–211.
- Brock, B. and Herbert, E., 1963, Iron-working amongst the Nyiha of Southern Tanganyika, South African Archaeological Bulletin, Vol. 18, pp. 97–100.
- Bryceson, D. F. and Mbilinyi, M., 1980, The Changing Role of Tanzanian Women in Production, in Anacleti, A. O., ed., Jipemoyo: Development and Culture Research, Vol. 2, Uppsala: Department of Research and Planning; Ministry of National Culture and Youth of Tanzania, Scandinavia Institute of African Studies, pp. 85–116.
- Burton, M. L. and White, D. R., 1984, Sexual Division of Labor in Agriculture, American Anthropologist, Vol. 86, No. 3, pp. 568–583.
- Chant, S. and Craske, N., 2003, Gender in Latin America, New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
- De Haas, H. and Van Rooij, A., 2010, Migration as Emancipation? The Impact of Internal and International Migration on the Position of Women Left Behind in Rural Morocco, Oxford Development Studies, Vol. 38, No. 1, pp. 43–62.
- Desai, S. and Banerji, M., 2008, Negotiated Identities: Male Migration and Left-Behind Wives in India, Journal of Population Research, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 337–355.
- Dinani, H., 2019, Gendered Migrant Labour: Marriage and the Political Economy of Wage Labour and Cash Crops in Late Colonial and Post-Independence Southern Tanzania, Gender & History, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 565–583.
- Dushanbieva, S., 2014, The Impacts of Migration: The Tajik Women’s Experiences of Their Husband’s Migration, MA dissertation, Central European University.
- Emami, Z., 1990, Ideological Conceptions of the Basis for the Sexual Division of Labour: Two Economic Determinist Views, Marx and Engels’ and Becker’s, Undermine Sound Social Policy, The American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol. 49, No. 2, pp. 211–221.
- Giblin, J. L., 2000, Divided Patriarchs in a Labour Migration Economy: Contextualizing Debate about Family and Gender in Colonial Njombe, in Creighton, C. and Omari, C. K., eds, Gender, Family and Work in Tanzania, Aldershot: Ashgate, pp. 177–199.
- Goody, J. and Buckley, J., 1973, Inheritance and Women’s Labour in Africa, Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, Vol. 43, No. 2, pp. 108–121.
- Gordon, E., 1981, An Analysis of the Impact of Labour Migration on the Lives of Women in Lesotho, The Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 59–76. Graham, J. D., 1970, A Case Study of Migrant Labour in Tanzania, African Studies Review, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 23–33.
- Guni, F. S. and Katule, A. M. 2013., Characterization of Local Chickens in Selected Districts of the Southern Highlands of Tanzania: I. Qualitative Characters, Livestock Research for Rural Development, Vol. 25, http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd25/9/ guni25153.htm Idang, G. E., 2015, African Culture and Values, Phronimon, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 97–111, http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_ arttext&pid=S1561-40182015000200006
- Iliffe, J., 1979, A Modern History of Tanganyika, Cambridge, UK and New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Jhpiego, 2019, Gender Analysis Toolkit for Health Systems, https://gender .jhpiego. org/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Jhpiego-Gender-Analysis-Toolkit-for-Health Systems.pdf.
- Kalindile, R. and Mbilinyi, M. with Sambulika, T., 1991, Grassroots Struggles for Women’s Advancement: The Story of Rebeka Kalindile, in Ngaiza, M. K. and Koda, B., eds, The Unsung Heroines, Dar es Salaam: WRDP Publications, pp. 109–148.
- Kangalawe, R. Y. M., 2012, Food Security and Health in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Evaluate the Impact of Climate Change and Other Stress Factors, African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 50–66, https://doi.org/10. 5897/AJEST11.003 Kato, M., 2001, Intensive Cultivation and Environment Use among the Matengo in Tanzania, African Study Monographs, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 73–92.
- Knight, C. G., 1974, Ecology and Change: Rural Modernization in an African Community, New York: Academic Press.
- Koponen, J., 1988, People and Production in Late Precolonial Tanzania: History and Structures, [Helsinki] Uppsala, Sweden: Finnish Society of Development Studies, Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.
- Koskikala, J., Kisanga, D. and Käyhkö, N., 2020, Biophysical Regions of the Southern Highlands, Tanzania: Regionalization in a Data Scarce Environment with Open Geospatial Data and Statistical Methods, Journal of Maps, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 376–87, https://doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2020.1761061.
- Kratz, C. A., 1989, Genres of Power: A Comparative Analysis of Okiek Blessings, Curses and Oaths, Man, New Series, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp. 636–56.
- Lovett, M., 1996a, Elders, Migrants and Wives: Labor Migration and the Renegotiation of Intergenerational Patronage and Gender Relations in Highland Buha, Western Tanzania, 1921-1962, PhD dissertation, Columbia University.
- Lovett, M., 1996b, ‘She Thinks She’s like a Man’: Marriage and (De)Constructing Gender Identity in Colonial Buha, Western Tanzania, 1943-1960, Canadian Journal of African Studies/Revue Canadienne Des Études Africaines, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 52–68.
- Mapunda, B., 2011, Jack of Two Trades, Master of Both: Smelting and Healing in Ufipa, Southwestern Tanzania, The African Archaeological Review, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 161–175.
- Mattee, A. Z., 1998., Change and Stability in the Indigenous Farming System of the Matengo, http://suaire.sua.ac.tz:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/1923/A.Z.%20Mattee%20.pdf sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
- Mazama, A., 2009, ‘Fertility’, in Asante M. K. and Mazama, A., eds, Encyclopedia of African Religion, New York: SAGE Publications, Inc., pp. 263-265.
- Mbilinyi, M., 1985, ‘City’ and ‘Countryside’ in Colonial Tanganyika, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 20, No. 43, pp. WS88–WS96.
- Mbonile, M. J., 1996, Towards Breaking the Vicious Circle of Labour Migration in Tanzania: A Case of Makete District, Utafiti, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 91–109.
- Mbonile, M. J., and Haulle, E., 2020, Pottery and Poverty Reduction among Kisi Households in Ludewa District, Tanzania, SSRN Electronic Journal, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3551095.
- Mende, D. H., Kayunze, K. A. and Mwatawala, M. W., 2014, Contribution of Round Potato Production to Household Income in Mbeya and Makete Districts, Tanzania, Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare, Vol. 4, No. 18, <http://www.suaire.sua.ac.tz:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/723>.
- Morton, F. S., 1979, The Structure of East African Age-set Systems (Maasai, Arusha, Nandi, and Kikuyu), Pula: Botswana Journal of African Studies, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 77–102. Mteti, S. H., 2016, Engendering Pottery Production and Distribution Processes among the Kisi and Pare of Tanzania, International Journal of Gender and Women’s Studies, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 127–41.
- Mustafina, R. M., 2015, Rituals of the Agricultural Cycle of the Kazakhs: Rite of Calling for Rain, The Anthropologist, Vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 553–559.
- Mwakikagile, G., 2008, African Immigrants in South Africa, Pretoria: New Africa Press. Omari, C. K., 1995, Decision-making and the household: Case studies from Tanzania, in Creighton, C. and Omari, C. K., eds, Gender, Family and Household in Tanzania, Aldershot: Avebury, pp. 203–221.
- Peristiany, J. G., 1951, The Age-Set System of the Pastoral Pokot: The ‘Sapana’ Initiation Ceremony, Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 188–206.
- Rodney, W., 1983, Migrant Labour and the Colonial Economy, in Rodney, W., Tambila, K. and Sago, L., eds, Migrant Labour in Tanzania During the Colonial Period: Case Studies of Recruitment and Conditions of Labour in the Sisal Industry, Hamburg: Institut für Afrika-Kunde, pp. 4–28.
- Ruthenberg, H., 1964, Agricultural Development in Tanganyika, http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-662-30235-4.
- Sabea, H., 2008, Mastering the Landscape? Sisal Plantations, Land, and Labor in Tanga Region, 1893–1980s, The International Journal of African Historical Studies, Vol. 41, No. 3, pp. 411–432.
- Sadock, M., 2013, Government and the Control of Venereal Disease in Colonial Tanzania, 1920–60, in Wieringa, S. and Sivori, H., eds, The Sexual History of the Global South: Sexual Politics in Africa, Asia and Latin America, London, UK, and New York: Zed Books, pp. 83–98.
- Santorum, A. and Tibaijuka, A., 1992, Trading Responses to Food Market Liberalization in Tanzania, Food Policy, Vol. 16, No. 6, pp. 431–443.
- Stichter, S., 1985, Migrant Laborers, Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Tambila, A., 1981, A History of the Rukwa Region (Tanzania) ca. 1870–1940: Aspects of Economic and Social Change from Pre-Colonial to Colonial Times, PhD dissertation, University of Hamburg.
- Tambila, K., 1983, A Plantation Labour Magnet: The Tanga Case, in Rodney, W., Tambila, K. and Sago, L., eds, Migrant Labour in Tanzania During the Colonial Period: Case Studies of Recruitment and Conditions of Labour in the Sisal Industry, Hamburg: Institut für Afrika-Kunde, pp. 29–56.
- Thebe, V., 2018, ‘Men on Transit’ and the Rural ‘Farmer Housewives’: Women in Decision Making Roles in Migrant-labour Societies in North-Western Zimbabwe, Journal of Asian and African Studies, Vol. 53, pp. 1118–1133, https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909618773781 Ullah, A. A., 2017, Male Migration and ‘Left–behind’ Women: Bane or Boon? Environment and Urbanization ASIA, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 59–73.
- Whyte, S. R., 1988, The Power of Medicines in East Africa, in Geest, S. and Whyte, S. R., eds, The Context of Medicines in Developing Countries: Studies in Pharmaceutical Anthropology, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 217–33.
- Wu, H. and Ye, J., 2016, Hollow Lives: Women Left Behind in Rural China, Journal of Agrarian Change, Vol. 16, pp. 50–69, https://doi.org/10.1111/joac.12089.
- Yabiku, S. T., Agadjanian, V. and Sevoyan, A., 2010, Husbands’ Labour Migration and Wives’ Autonomy, Mozambique 2000–2006, Population Studies, Vol. 64, No. 3, pp. 293–306.
Les références
Adepoju, A., 1995, Migration in Africa: An Overview, in Baker, J. and Aida, T. A., eds., The Migration Experience in Africa, Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, pp. 87–108.
Afonja, S., 1981, Changing Modes of Production and the Sexual Division of Labour among the Yoruba, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, Vol. 7, pp. 299–313.
Alahira, H. A., 2014, The Origin and Nature of Traditional Gender Division of Labour among the Berom of the Jos Plateau in Northern Nigeria, International Journal of Gender & Women’s Studies, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 49–62.
Kinunda, N., 2017, Negotiating Women’s Labour: Women Farmers, State, and Society in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania, 1885–2000, PhD thesis, University of Göttingen.
Baumann, H., 1928, The Division of Work According to Sex in African Hoe Culture, Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 289–319.
Boehm, D. A., 2008, ‘Now I am a Man and a Woman!’: Gendered Moves and Migrations in a Transnational Mexican Community, Latin American Perspectives, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 16–30.
Brink, J. H., 1991, The Effect of Emigration of Husbands of Husbands on the Status of Their Wives: An Egyptian Case, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 201–211.
Brock, B. and Herbert, E., 1963, Iron-working amongst the Nyiha of Southern Tanganyika, South African Archaeological Bulletin, Vol. 18, pp. 97–100.
Bryceson, D. F. and Mbilinyi, M., 1980, The Changing Role of Tanzanian Women in Production, in Anacleti, A. O., ed., Jipemoyo: Development and Culture Research, Vol. 2, Uppsala: Department of Research and Planning; Ministry of National Culture and Youth of Tanzania, Scandinavia Institute of African Studies, pp. 85–116.
Burton, M. L. and White, D. R., 1984, Sexual Division of Labor in Agriculture, American Anthropologist, Vol. 86, No. 3, pp. 568–583.
Chant, S. and Craske, N., 2003, Gender in Latin America, New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
De Haas, H. and Van Rooij, A., 2010, Migration as Emancipation? The Impact of Internal and International Migration on the Position of Women Left Behind in Rural Morocco, Oxford Development Studies, Vol. 38, No. 1, pp. 43–62.
Desai, S. and Banerji, M., 2008, Negotiated Identities: Male Migration and Left-Behind Wives in India, Journal of Population Research, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 337–355.
Dinani, H., 2019, Gendered Migrant Labour: Marriage and the Political Economy of Wage Labour and Cash Crops in Late Colonial and Post-Independence Southern Tanzania, Gender & History, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 565–583.
Dushanbieva, S., 2014, The Impacts of Migration: The Tajik Women’s Experiences of Their Husband’s Migration, MA dissertation, Central European University.
Emami, Z., 1990, Ideological Conceptions of the Basis for the Sexual Division of Labour: Two Economic Determinist Views, Marx and Engels’ and Becker’s, Undermine Sound Social Policy, The American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol. 49, No. 2, pp. 211–221.
Giblin, J. L., 2000, Divided Patriarchs in a Labour Migration Economy: Contextualizing Debate about Family and Gender in Colonial Njombe, in Creighton, C. and Omari, C. K., eds, Gender, Family and Work in Tanzania, Aldershot: Ashgate, pp. 177–199.
Goody, J. and Buckley, J., 1973, Inheritance and Women’s Labour in Africa, Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, Vol. 43, No. 2, pp. 108–121.
Gordon, E., 1981, An Analysis of the Impact of Labour Migration on the Lives of Women in Lesotho, The Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 59–76. Graham, J. D., 1970, A Case Study of Migrant Labour in Tanzania, African Studies Review, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 23–33.
Guni, F. S. and Katule, A. M. 2013., Characterization of Local Chickens in Selected Districts of the Southern Highlands of Tanzania: I. Qualitative Characters, Livestock Research for Rural Development, Vol. 25, http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd25/9/ guni25153.htm Idang, G. E., 2015, African Culture and Values, Phronimon, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 97–111, http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_ arttext&pid=S1561-40182015000200006
Iliffe, J., 1979, A Modern History of Tanganyika, Cambridge, UK and New York: Cambridge University Press.
Jhpiego, 2019, Gender Analysis Toolkit for Health Systems, https://gender .jhpiego. org/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Jhpiego-Gender-Analysis-Toolkit-for-Health Systems.pdf.
Kalindile, R. and Mbilinyi, M. with Sambulika, T., 1991, Grassroots Struggles for Women’s Advancement: The Story of Rebeka Kalindile, in Ngaiza, M. K. and Koda, B., eds, The Unsung Heroines, Dar es Salaam: WRDP Publications, pp. 109–148.
Kangalawe, R. Y. M., 2012, Food Security and Health in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Evaluate the Impact of Climate Change and Other Stress Factors, African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 50–66, https://doi.org/10. 5897/AJEST11.003 Kato, M., 2001, Intensive Cultivation and Environment Use among the Matengo in Tanzania, African Study Monographs, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 73–92.
Knight, C. G., 1974, Ecology and Change: Rural Modernization in an African Community, New York: Academic Press.
Koponen, J., 1988, People and Production in Late Precolonial Tanzania: History and Structures, [Helsinki] Uppsala, Sweden: Finnish Society of Development Studies, Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.
Koskikala, J., Kisanga, D. and Käyhkö, N., 2020, Biophysical Regions of the Southern Highlands, Tanzania: Regionalization in a Data Scarce Environment with Open Geospatial Data and Statistical Methods, Journal of Maps, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 376–87, https://doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2020.1761061.
Kratz, C. A., 1989, Genres of Power: A Comparative Analysis of Okiek Blessings, Curses and Oaths, Man, New Series, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp. 636–56.
Lovett, M., 1996a, Elders, Migrants and Wives: Labor Migration and the Renegotiation of Intergenerational Patronage and Gender Relations in Highland Buha, Western Tanzania, 1921-1962, PhD dissertation, Columbia University.
Lovett, M., 1996b, ‘She Thinks She’s like a Man’: Marriage and (De)Constructing Gender Identity in Colonial Buha, Western Tanzania, 1943-1960, Canadian Journal of African Studies/Revue Canadienne Des Études Africaines, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 52–68.
Mapunda, B., 2011, Jack of Two Trades, Master of Both: Smelting and Healing in Ufipa, Southwestern Tanzania, The African Archaeological Review, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 161–175.
Mattee, A. Z., 1998., Change and Stability in the Indigenous Farming System of the Matengo, http://suaire.sua.ac.tz:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/1923/A.Z.%20Mattee%20.pdf sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
Mazama, A., 2009, ‘Fertility’, in Asante M. K. and Mazama, A., eds, Encyclopedia of African Religion, New York: SAGE Publications, Inc., pp. 263-265.
Mbilinyi, M., 1985, ‘City’ and ‘Countryside’ in Colonial Tanganyika, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 20, No. 43, pp. WS88–WS96.
Mbonile, M. J., 1996, Towards Breaking the Vicious Circle of Labour Migration in Tanzania: A Case of Makete District, Utafiti, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 91–109.
Mbonile, M. J., and Haulle, E., 2020, Pottery and Poverty Reduction among Kisi Households in Ludewa District, Tanzania, SSRN Electronic Journal, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3551095.
Mende, D. H., Kayunze, K. A. and Mwatawala, M. W., 2014, Contribution of Round Potato Production to Household Income in Mbeya and Makete Districts, Tanzania, Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare, Vol. 4, No. 18, <http://www.suaire.sua.ac.tz:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/723>.
Morton, F. S., 1979, The Structure of East African Age-set Systems (Maasai, Arusha, Nandi, and Kikuyu), Pula: Botswana Journal of African Studies, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 77–102. Mteti, S. H., 2016, Engendering Pottery Production and Distribution Processes among the Kisi and Pare of Tanzania, International Journal of Gender and Women’s Studies, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 127–41.
Mustafina, R. M., 2015, Rituals of the Agricultural Cycle of the Kazakhs: Rite of Calling for Rain, The Anthropologist, Vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 553–559.
Mwakikagile, G., 2008, African Immigrants in South Africa, Pretoria: New Africa Press. Omari, C. K., 1995, Decision-making and the household: Case studies from Tanzania, in Creighton, C. and Omari, C. K., eds, Gender, Family and Household in Tanzania, Aldershot: Avebury, pp. 203–221.
Peristiany, J. G., 1951, The Age-Set System of the Pastoral Pokot: The ‘Sapana’ Initiation Ceremony, Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 188–206.
Rodney, W., 1983, Migrant Labour and the Colonial Economy, in Rodney, W., Tambila, K. and Sago, L., eds, Migrant Labour in Tanzania During the Colonial Period: Case Studies of Recruitment and Conditions of Labour in the Sisal Industry, Hamburg: Institut für Afrika-Kunde, pp. 4–28.
Ruthenberg, H., 1964, Agricultural Development in Tanganyika, http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-662-30235-4.
Sabea, H., 2008, Mastering the Landscape? Sisal Plantations, Land, and Labor in Tanga Region, 1893–1980s, The International Journal of African Historical Studies, Vol. 41, No. 3, pp. 411–432.
Sadock, M., 2013, Government and the Control of Venereal Disease in Colonial Tanzania, 1920–60, in Wieringa, S. and Sivori, H., eds, The Sexual History of the Global South: Sexual Politics in Africa, Asia and Latin America, London, UK, and New York: Zed Books, pp. 83–98.
Santorum, A. and Tibaijuka, A., 1992, Trading Responses to Food Market Liberalization in Tanzania, Food Policy, Vol. 16, No. 6, pp. 431–443.
Stichter, S., 1985, Migrant Laborers, Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press.
Tambila, A., 1981, A History of the Rukwa Region (Tanzania) ca. 1870–1940: Aspects of Economic and Social Change from Pre-Colonial to Colonial Times, PhD dissertation, University of Hamburg.
Tambila, K., 1983, A Plantation Labour Magnet: The Tanga Case, in Rodney, W., Tambila, K. and Sago, L., eds, Migrant Labour in Tanzania During the Colonial Period: Case Studies of Recruitment and Conditions of Labour in the Sisal Industry, Hamburg: Institut für Afrika-Kunde, pp. 29–56.
Thebe, V., 2018, ‘Men on Transit’ and the Rural ‘Farmer Housewives’: Women in Decision Making Roles in Migrant-labour Societies in North-Western Zimbabwe, Journal of Asian and African Studies, Vol. 53, pp. 1118–1133, https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909618773781 Ullah, A. A., 2017, Male Migration and ‘Left–behind’ Women: Bane or Boon? Environment and Urbanization ASIA, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 59–73.
Whyte, S. R., 1988, The Power of Medicines in East Africa, in Geest, S. and Whyte, S. R., eds, The Context of Medicines in Developing Countries: Studies in Pharmaceutical Anthropology, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 217–33.
Wu, H. and Ye, J., 2016, Hollow Lives: Women Left Behind in Rural China, Journal of Agrarian Change, Vol. 16, pp. 50–69, https://doi.org/10.1111/joac.12089.
Yabiku, S. T., Agadjanian, V. and Sevoyan, A., 2010, Husbands’ Labour Migration and Wives’ Autonomy, Mozambique 2000–2006, Population Studies, Vol. 64, No. 3, pp. 293–306.