2 - Universities and Regional Development: Lessons from the OECD Regional Assessment of the Free State, South Africa
Corresponding Author(s) : Doreen Atkinson
Journal of Higher Education in Africa,
Vol. 12 No. 2 (2014): Journal of Higher Education in Africa: Special Issue on Academic Freedom in Africa
Abstract
For the past few decades, the debate surrounding the ‘third mission’ of universities in South Africa has been dominated by the notion of univer- sity-community engagement. At the same time, the notion of regional development has come under the spotlight internationally. Drawing on existing literature on the relationship between universities, knowledge, the economy and community engagement, this paper scrutinises the OECD review of university-regional engagement in the Free State province in order to identify key lessons. Our contention is that, because the notion of regional engagement has become a central part of university manage- ment, assessment and even rankings, it should be viewed as an integral part of a university’s core activities of teaching and research, rather than as a separate third mission. Furthermore, findings reveal that a university’s engagement with its region also depends on regional assets and structures to support such processes.
Keywords
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- Altbach, P., 2008, ‘The Complex Roles of Universities in the Period of Globaliza- tion. Higher Education in the World 3: New Challenges and Emerging Roles for Human and Social Development, GUNI Series on the social commitment of universities, 38. Basingstoke.
- Amin, A., & Thrift, N., 1994, Globalisation, Institutions and Regional Development in Europe, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Aydalot, P., 1986, Milieux Innovateurs en Europe, Paris: GREM.
- Bellini, N., Danson, M., & Halkier, H., 2012, Regional Development Agencies: The Next Generation, London: Routledge.
- Benneworth, P., & Hospers, G., 2008, ‘The Role of a University in Regional Renewal: The Case of Newcastle’, Northern Economic Review, Vol. 38, pp. 81-101.
- Benneworth, P., Hospers, G., & Jongbloed, B., 2006, New Economic Impulses in Old Industrial Regions: The Role of the University of Twente in Regional Renewal n.p: Munster: Lit.
- Bramwell, A., & Wolfe, D., 2008, ‘Universities and Regional Economic Develop- ment: The Entrepreneurial University of Waterloo’, Research Policy, vol. 37, pp. 1175-1187.
- Bridges, D., 2007, ‘Higher Education and National Development: Universities and Societies in Transition’. In: D. Bridges, P. Jucevičienė, R. Jucevičius, T. McLaughlin, & J. Stankevičiutė, eds, Higher Education and National Develop- ment: Universities and Societies in Transition, London: Routledge, pp. 103-119.
- Bunting, I., & Cloete, N., 2007, Project on Governing Access to Higher Education Country Report: South Africa, Cape Town: CHET.
- Carroll, M., & Smith, B. W., 2006, ‘Estimating the Economic Impact of Universities: The Case of Bowling Green State University’, Industrial Geographer, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 1-12.
- Castells, M., 2001, ‘Universities as Dynamic Systems of Contradictory Functions’. In: J. Muller, N. Cloete, & S. Badat, eds, Challenges of Globalisation: South African Debates with Manuel Castells, Cape Town: Maskew Miller Longman,pp. 206-223.
- Chatterton, P., & Goddard, J., 2000, ‘The Response of Higher Education Institutions to Regional Needs’, European Journal of Education, Vol. 35, No. 4, pp. 475-496.
- Clark, B., 1998, Creating Entrepreneurial Universities: Organizational Pathways of Transformation, Oxford: Pergamon-IAU Press.
- Clark, B., 2001, ‘The Entrepreneurial University: New Foundations for Collegial- ity, Autonomy and Achievement’, Journal of the Programme on Institutional Management in Higher Education, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 9-24.
- Cloete, N., Bailey, T., Pillay, P., Bunting, I., & Maassen, P., 2011, Universities and Economic Development in Africa, Cape Town: CHET.
- Coenen, L., 2007,. ‘The Role of Universities in the Regional Innovation Systems of the North East of England and Scania, Sweden: Providing Missing Links?’ Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, Vol. 25, pp. 803-821.
- Cohen, W., & Levinthal, D., 1990,. ‘Absorptive Capacity: A New Perspective on Learn- ing and Innovation’, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 35, 1, pp. 128-152.
- Conceicao, P., Heitor, M., & Oliveira, P., 1998, ‘Expectations for the University in the Knowledge-Based Economy: Harnessing Technology for Economic Growth’, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Vol. 58, Vol. 3, pp. 203-214.
- Cooke, P., & Leydesdorff, L. 2006, ‘Regional Development in the Knowledge-Based Economy: The Construction of Advantage’, Journal of Technology Transfer, Vol. 31, pp. 5-15.
- Cooper, D., 2009, The University in National Development: The Role of Use Inspired Research. CapeTown: HSRC Press.
- Council on Higher Education (CHE), 2010, Community Engagement in South African Higher Education (Kagisano, 6). Pretoria: CHE.
- Dave port, T. H. & Prusak, I., 1998, Working Knowledge – How Organisations Manage What They Know. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
- Dempsey, S., 2010, ‘Critiquing Community Engagement’, Management Communica- tion Quarterly, Vol.24, pp. 359-390.
- Department of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology (DACST), 1996, White Paper on Science and Technology: Preparing for the 21st Century, Pretoria: DACST.
- Department of Science and Technology (DST), 2007, Innovation towards a Knowledge Economy: Ten Year Plan for South Africa (2008-2018), Pretoria: DST.
- Etzkowitz, H., & Leydesdorff, L., 1998, ‘The Endless Transition: A ‘‘Triple Helix’’ of University-Industry-Government Relations’ Minerva, Vol. 36, pp. 203-208.
- European Commission, 2013, Towards Knowledge-Driven Reindustrialisation, Lux- emburg: European Union.
- Favish, J., & McMillan, J., 2009, ‘The University and Social Responsiveness in the Curriculum: A New Form of Scholarship’, London Review of Education, Vol. 7, Vol. 2, pp. 169-179.
- Florida, R., 1995, ‘Towards the Learning Region’, Futures, Vol. 27, pp. 527-536. Fongwa, S., 2010, The Contribution of Higher Education to Regional Socio-Economic Development: the University of Buea, Cameroon, as a Growth Pole. Cape Town: Unpublished Master’s thesis, University of the Western Cape.
- Fongwa, S., 2013, Universities in Regional Development: Knowledge Transfer in Less Favoured Regions. Bloemfontein: Unpublished PhD thesis, University of the Free State.
- Free State Provincial Government, 2012, Provincial Growth and Development Strategy.
- Bloemfontein: Department of the Premier.
- Free State Regional Steering Committee, 2010, Free State, Self-Valuation Report: OECD Reviews of Higher Education in Regional and City Development. Bloem- fontein: University of the Free State.
- Freeman, C., 1995, ‘The “National System of Innovation” in Historical Perspective’, Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol. 19, pp. 5-24.
- Hall, M., 2010, ‘Community Engagement in South Africa’s Higher Education’. In: CHE, Community Engagement in South Africa’s Higher Education, Pretoria: CHE, pp. 1-52.
- Hart, A., & Northmore, S., 2011, ‘Auditing and Evaluating University-Community Engagement: Lesson from a UK Case Study’, Higher Education Quarterly, Vol. 65, No. 1, pp. 34-58.
- Hassink, R., 2005, ‘How to Unlock Regional Economies from Path Dependency? From Learning Regions to Learning Cluster’, European Planning Studies, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 521-535.
- Human Science Research Council (HSRC), 2008, National Survey of Research and Experimental Development. Pretoria: HSRC.
- Inkpen, A. C. & Tsang, W. K., 2005, Social Capital, Networks and Knowledge Transfer’. The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 146-165.
- Jones, G., 2013, ‘Engineering: Unblocking the Pipeline’, Financial Mail,April,pp. 12-17.
- Kaplan, D., 2008, Science and Technology Policy in South Africa: A Critical Assess- ment of Part Performances and Proposed Future Directions. Vienna: Research and Statistics Branch, Working paper 01/2008, United Nations Industrial Development Organization.
- Kruss, G., Haupt, G., Visser, M., & Aphane, M., 2012, Academic Interaction with Social Partners: Investigating the Contribution of Universities to Economic and Social Development. Cape Town: HSRC Press.
- Lazarus, J., Erasmus, M., Hendricks, D., Nduna, J., & Slamat, J., 2008, ‘Embedding Community Engagement in South African Higher Education’, Education, Citi- zenship and Social Justice, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 57-83.
- Lundvall, B., 1992, National Systems of Innovation: Towards a Theory of Innovation and Interactive Learning. London: Pinter.
- Lundvall, B., 1994, ‘The Learning Economy: Challenges to Economic Theory and Policy’. Paper delivered at the EAEPE Conference. Copenhagen.
- Marais, L., 2013, ‘The Impact of Mine Downscaling on the Free State Goldfields’, Urban Forum, Vol. 24, pp. 503-521.
- Marais, L., & Pelser, A., 2006, ‘Voting with Their Feet: Post-Apartheid Population Trends in the Free State’, South African Geographical Journal, Vol. 88, 1,pp. 19-28.
- Martin, B. R., & Etzkowitz, H., 2000,. ‘The Origin and Evolution of the University Specie’, VEST,Vol. 13, No. 3-4, pp. 9-34.
- McDowell, G., 2003, ‘Engaged Universities: Lessons from the Land Grant Universi- ties andExtension’, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 588, pp. 31-50.
- Molas-Gallart, J., & Castro-Martinex, E., 2007, ‘Ambiguity and Conflict in the Development of “Third Mission” indicators’, Research Evaluation, Vol. 16, 4, pp. 321-330.
- Muller, J., 2010, ‘Engagements with Engagement: A Response to Martin Hall’. In: CHE, Community Engagement in South African Higher Education, Johannes- burg: Council of Higher Education, pp.68-88.
- Nel, E., Rogerson, C., & Marais, L., 2006, ‘The Changing Free State Manufacturing Economy’, South African Geographical Journal, Vol. 88, 1, pp. 48-57.
- Olowu, D., 2012, ‘University-Community Engagement in South Africa: Dilemmas in Benchmarking’, South African Review of Sociology, pp. 89-103.
- Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 2001, Cities and Regions in the Learning Economy. Paris: OECD.
- Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 2007a, Globalisation and Regional Economies: Can OECD Regions Compete in Global Industries? Paris: OECD.
- Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 2007b, Higher Education and Regions: Globally Competitive, Locally Engaged. Paris: OECD.
- Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 2008, OECD Reviews of Innovation Policy: Norway. Paris: OECD.
- Pinherio, R., Ouma, W., & Pillay, P., 2013, ‘The Dynamics of University Transforma- tion: A Case Study in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa’, Journal of Higher Education in Africa, Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 95-120.
- Powell, W., & Snellman, K., 2004, ‘The Knowledge Economy’ Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 30, pp.199-220.
- Puukka, J., Dubarle, P., McKiernan, H., Reddy, J., & Wade, P., 2012, The Free State, South Africa (Higher Education and Regional and City Development), Paris: OECD.
- Ratti, R., Bramanti, A., & Gordon, R., 1997, The Dynamics of Innovative Regions.
- The GREMI-approach. Aldershot: Ashgate.
- Republic of South Africa (RSA), 2010, Higher Education Management Information System (HEMIS),Pretoria: Department of Higher Education and Training.
- Republic of South Africa (RSA), 2013, White Paper for Post-School Education and Training. Building an Expanded, Effective and Integrated Post-School System, Pretoria: Department of Higher Education and Training.
- Schmidt, H., 1995, ‘Small Shoemakers and Fordist Giants: Tale of a Super Cluster’,World Development, Vol. 23, pp. 9-28.
- Siegel, D., & Phan, P., 2005. ‘Analysing the Effectiveness of University Technology Transfer:Implications for Entrepreneurship Education’. In G. Liebcap, Advances in the Study of Entrepreneurship, Innovation and Economic Growth, Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 1-38.
- Siegel, D. S., Waldman, D. A. & Link, A. N., 2003, ‚Assessing the Impact of Organisation Practices on the Productivity of University Technology Transfer Offices: An Exploratory Study’, Research Policy, Vol. 32, No.1, pp. 27-48.
- Stats SA. 2012, Census 2011 data, Pretoria: Stats SA.
- Thelin, J. 2004, A History of American Higher Education, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Urbano, D., & Guerrero, M., 2013, ‘Entrepreneurial Universities: Socioeconomic Impacts of Academic Entrepreneurship in a European Region’, Economic De- velopment Quarterly, pp. 40-55.
- Van Vught, F., Kaiser, F., File, J., Gaethgens, C., Peter, R., & Westerheijden, D., 2010, The European Classification of Higher Education Institutions. Brussels:European Commission.
References
Altbach, P., 2008, ‘The Complex Roles of Universities in the Period of Globaliza- tion. Higher Education in the World 3: New Challenges and Emerging Roles for Human and Social Development, GUNI Series on the social commitment of universities, 38. Basingstoke.
Amin, A., & Thrift, N., 1994, Globalisation, Institutions and Regional Development in Europe, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Aydalot, P., 1986, Milieux Innovateurs en Europe, Paris: GREM.
Bellini, N., Danson, M., & Halkier, H., 2012, Regional Development Agencies: The Next Generation, London: Routledge.
Benneworth, P., & Hospers, G., 2008, ‘The Role of a University in Regional Renewal: The Case of Newcastle’, Northern Economic Review, Vol. 38, pp. 81-101.
Benneworth, P., Hospers, G., & Jongbloed, B., 2006, New Economic Impulses in Old Industrial Regions: The Role of the University of Twente in Regional Renewal n.p: Munster: Lit.
Bramwell, A., & Wolfe, D., 2008, ‘Universities and Regional Economic Develop- ment: The Entrepreneurial University of Waterloo’, Research Policy, vol. 37, pp. 1175-1187.
Bridges, D., 2007, ‘Higher Education and National Development: Universities and Societies in Transition’. In: D. Bridges, P. Jucevičienė, R. Jucevičius, T. McLaughlin, & J. Stankevičiutė, eds, Higher Education and National Develop- ment: Universities and Societies in Transition, London: Routledge, pp. 103-119.
Bunting, I., & Cloete, N., 2007, Project on Governing Access to Higher Education Country Report: South Africa, Cape Town: CHET.
Carroll, M., & Smith, B. W., 2006, ‘Estimating the Economic Impact of Universities: The Case of Bowling Green State University’, Industrial Geographer, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 1-12.
Castells, M., 2001, ‘Universities as Dynamic Systems of Contradictory Functions’. In: J. Muller, N. Cloete, & S. Badat, eds, Challenges of Globalisation: South African Debates with Manuel Castells, Cape Town: Maskew Miller Longman,pp. 206-223.
Chatterton, P., & Goddard, J., 2000, ‘The Response of Higher Education Institutions to Regional Needs’, European Journal of Education, Vol. 35, No. 4, pp. 475-496.
Clark, B., 1998, Creating Entrepreneurial Universities: Organizational Pathways of Transformation, Oxford: Pergamon-IAU Press.
Clark, B., 2001, ‘The Entrepreneurial University: New Foundations for Collegial- ity, Autonomy and Achievement’, Journal of the Programme on Institutional Management in Higher Education, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 9-24.
Cloete, N., Bailey, T., Pillay, P., Bunting, I., & Maassen, P., 2011, Universities and Economic Development in Africa, Cape Town: CHET.
Coenen, L., 2007,. ‘The Role of Universities in the Regional Innovation Systems of the North East of England and Scania, Sweden: Providing Missing Links?’ Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, Vol. 25, pp. 803-821.
Cohen, W., & Levinthal, D., 1990,. ‘Absorptive Capacity: A New Perspective on Learn- ing and Innovation’, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 35, 1, pp. 128-152.
Conceicao, P., Heitor, M., & Oliveira, P., 1998, ‘Expectations for the University in the Knowledge-Based Economy: Harnessing Technology for Economic Growth’, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Vol. 58, Vol. 3, pp. 203-214.
Cooke, P., & Leydesdorff, L. 2006, ‘Regional Development in the Knowledge-Based Economy: The Construction of Advantage’, Journal of Technology Transfer, Vol. 31, pp. 5-15.
Cooper, D., 2009, The University in National Development: The Role of Use Inspired Research. CapeTown: HSRC Press.
Council on Higher Education (CHE), 2010, Community Engagement in South African Higher Education (Kagisano, 6). Pretoria: CHE.
Dave port, T. H. & Prusak, I., 1998, Working Knowledge – How Organisations Manage What They Know. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Dempsey, S., 2010, ‘Critiquing Community Engagement’, Management Communica- tion Quarterly, Vol.24, pp. 359-390.
Department of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology (DACST), 1996, White Paper on Science and Technology: Preparing for the 21st Century, Pretoria: DACST.
Department of Science and Technology (DST), 2007, Innovation towards a Knowledge Economy: Ten Year Plan for South Africa (2008-2018), Pretoria: DST.
Etzkowitz, H., & Leydesdorff, L., 1998, ‘The Endless Transition: A ‘‘Triple Helix’’ of University-Industry-Government Relations’ Minerva, Vol. 36, pp. 203-208.
European Commission, 2013, Towards Knowledge-Driven Reindustrialisation, Lux- emburg: European Union.
Favish, J., & McMillan, J., 2009, ‘The University and Social Responsiveness in the Curriculum: A New Form of Scholarship’, London Review of Education, Vol. 7, Vol. 2, pp. 169-179.
Florida, R., 1995, ‘Towards the Learning Region’, Futures, Vol. 27, pp. 527-536. Fongwa, S., 2010, The Contribution of Higher Education to Regional Socio-Economic Development: the University of Buea, Cameroon, as a Growth Pole. Cape Town: Unpublished Master’s thesis, University of the Western Cape.
Fongwa, S., 2013, Universities in Regional Development: Knowledge Transfer in Less Favoured Regions. Bloemfontein: Unpublished PhD thesis, University of the Free State.
Free State Provincial Government, 2012, Provincial Growth and Development Strategy.
Bloemfontein: Department of the Premier.
Free State Regional Steering Committee, 2010, Free State, Self-Valuation Report: OECD Reviews of Higher Education in Regional and City Development. Bloem- fontein: University of the Free State.
Freeman, C., 1995, ‘The “National System of Innovation” in Historical Perspective’, Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol. 19, pp. 5-24.
Hall, M., 2010, ‘Community Engagement in South Africa’s Higher Education’. In: CHE, Community Engagement in South Africa’s Higher Education, Pretoria: CHE, pp. 1-52.
Hart, A., & Northmore, S., 2011, ‘Auditing and Evaluating University-Community Engagement: Lesson from a UK Case Study’, Higher Education Quarterly, Vol. 65, No. 1, pp. 34-58.
Hassink, R., 2005, ‘How to Unlock Regional Economies from Path Dependency? From Learning Regions to Learning Cluster’, European Planning Studies, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 521-535.
Human Science Research Council (HSRC), 2008, National Survey of Research and Experimental Development. Pretoria: HSRC.
Inkpen, A. C. & Tsang, W. K., 2005, Social Capital, Networks and Knowledge Transfer’. The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 146-165.
Jones, G., 2013, ‘Engineering: Unblocking the Pipeline’, Financial Mail,April,pp. 12-17.
Kaplan, D., 2008, Science and Technology Policy in South Africa: A Critical Assess- ment of Part Performances and Proposed Future Directions. Vienna: Research and Statistics Branch, Working paper 01/2008, United Nations Industrial Development Organization.
Kruss, G., Haupt, G., Visser, M., & Aphane, M., 2012, Academic Interaction with Social Partners: Investigating the Contribution of Universities to Economic and Social Development. Cape Town: HSRC Press.
Lazarus, J., Erasmus, M., Hendricks, D., Nduna, J., & Slamat, J., 2008, ‘Embedding Community Engagement in South African Higher Education’, Education, Citi- zenship and Social Justice, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 57-83.
Lundvall, B., 1992, National Systems of Innovation: Towards a Theory of Innovation and Interactive Learning. London: Pinter.
Lundvall, B., 1994, ‘The Learning Economy: Challenges to Economic Theory and Policy’. Paper delivered at the EAEPE Conference. Copenhagen.
Marais, L., 2013, ‘The Impact of Mine Downscaling on the Free State Goldfields’, Urban Forum, Vol. 24, pp. 503-521.
Marais, L., & Pelser, A., 2006, ‘Voting with Their Feet: Post-Apartheid Population Trends in the Free State’, South African Geographical Journal, Vol. 88, 1,pp. 19-28.
Martin, B. R., & Etzkowitz, H., 2000,. ‘The Origin and Evolution of the University Specie’, VEST,Vol. 13, No. 3-4, pp. 9-34.
McDowell, G., 2003, ‘Engaged Universities: Lessons from the Land Grant Universi- ties andExtension’, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 588, pp. 31-50.
Molas-Gallart, J., & Castro-Martinex, E., 2007, ‘Ambiguity and Conflict in the Development of “Third Mission” indicators’, Research Evaluation, Vol. 16, 4, pp. 321-330.
Muller, J., 2010, ‘Engagements with Engagement: A Response to Martin Hall’. In: CHE, Community Engagement in South African Higher Education, Johannes- burg: Council of Higher Education, pp.68-88.
Nel, E., Rogerson, C., & Marais, L., 2006, ‘The Changing Free State Manufacturing Economy’, South African Geographical Journal, Vol. 88, 1, pp. 48-57.
Olowu, D., 2012, ‘University-Community Engagement in South Africa: Dilemmas in Benchmarking’, South African Review of Sociology, pp. 89-103.
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 2001, Cities and Regions in the Learning Economy. Paris: OECD.
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 2007a, Globalisation and Regional Economies: Can OECD Regions Compete in Global Industries? Paris: OECD.
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 2007b, Higher Education and Regions: Globally Competitive, Locally Engaged. Paris: OECD.
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 2008, OECD Reviews of Innovation Policy: Norway. Paris: OECD.
Pinherio, R., Ouma, W., & Pillay, P., 2013, ‘The Dynamics of University Transforma- tion: A Case Study in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa’, Journal of Higher Education in Africa, Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 95-120.
Powell, W., & Snellman, K., 2004, ‘The Knowledge Economy’ Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 30, pp.199-220.
Puukka, J., Dubarle, P., McKiernan, H., Reddy, J., & Wade, P., 2012, The Free State, South Africa (Higher Education and Regional and City Development), Paris: OECD.
Ratti, R., Bramanti, A., & Gordon, R., 1997, The Dynamics of Innovative Regions.
The GREMI-approach. Aldershot: Ashgate.
Republic of South Africa (RSA), 2010, Higher Education Management Information System (HEMIS),Pretoria: Department of Higher Education and Training.
Republic of South Africa (RSA), 2013, White Paper for Post-School Education and Training. Building an Expanded, Effective and Integrated Post-School System, Pretoria: Department of Higher Education and Training.
Schmidt, H., 1995, ‘Small Shoemakers and Fordist Giants: Tale of a Super Cluster’,World Development, Vol. 23, pp. 9-28.
Siegel, D., & Phan, P., 2005. ‘Analysing the Effectiveness of University Technology Transfer:Implications for Entrepreneurship Education’. In G. Liebcap, Advances in the Study of Entrepreneurship, Innovation and Economic Growth, Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 1-38.
Siegel, D. S., Waldman, D. A. & Link, A. N., 2003, ‚Assessing the Impact of Organisation Practices on the Productivity of University Technology Transfer Offices: An Exploratory Study’, Research Policy, Vol. 32, No.1, pp. 27-48.
Stats SA. 2012, Census 2011 data, Pretoria: Stats SA.
Thelin, J. 2004, A History of American Higher Education, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Urbano, D., & Guerrero, M., 2013, ‘Entrepreneurial Universities: Socioeconomic Impacts of Academic Entrepreneurship in a European Region’, Economic De- velopment Quarterly, pp. 40-55.
Van Vught, F., Kaiser, F., File, J., Gaethgens, C., Peter, R., & Westerheijden, D., 2010, The European Classification of Higher Education Institutions. Brussels:European Commission.