4 - Cross-Border Education as Trade: Issues for Consultation, Policy Review and Research*
Journal of Higher Education in Africa,
Vol. 2 No. 3 (2004): Journal of Higher Education in Africa
Abstract
This paper is abridged from a report prepared for the African Association of Universities Workshop on GATS and Higher Education (May 2004) and includes information from papers written by the author for the Observatory of Borderless Higher Education and for UNESCO.
This paper provides background information and an analytical framework to study the implications of cross-border provision of higher education in Africa—especially in the context of an increased emphasis on commercial provision and the existence of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). The major principles related to GATS rules for trade in education services are addressed and a summary of GATS commitments made by African countries to higher education is provided. A discussion of rationales and risks associated to the commercial import and export of education leads to an examination of potential policy implications related to increased cross-border mobility of higher education institutions/providers, programmes and student/scholars. Finally, key questions and issues are identified upon which education leaders and stakeholders may reflect for their relevance to the African context and the need for further research, policy review and consultation.
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- Accra Declaration on GATS and the Internationalisation of Higher Education in Africa, April 29, 2004, Retrieved on 12 August 2004, from http://www.aau.org/ wto-gats/declaration.htm.
- (EI/PSI), Education International/Public Services International, 1999, The WTO and the Millennium Round: What Is at Stake for Public Education? Seattle,WA. Retrieved on August 12, 2004, from http://www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/bwi-wto/idxstl99.htm.
- Education International/Public Services International, 2000, Great Expectations: The Future of Trade in Services. Brussels, Belgium. Retrieved on August 12, 2004, from http://www.ei-ie.org.
- Ensor, L., 2003, March 6, Business Day (newspaper), 1st ed.
- Garrett, R., 2003, Mapping the Education Industry. Part 2: Public Companies—Relationships with Higher Education, London: Observatory on Borderless Higher Education.
- Gottlieb and Pearson [law firm, Ottawa], 2001, ‘GATS Impact on Education in Canada’. Legal opinion.
- Jowi, J. O., 2003, ‘Trade in Higher Education Services: The Kenyan Case’, in P.
- Pillay, P. Masseen, N. Cloete, (eds.), GATS and Higher Education in SADC, Rondebosch, South Africa: Centre for Higher Education Transformation (CHET).
- Knight, J., 2002, Trade in Higher Education Services: The Implications of GATS, London: Observatory on Borderless Higher Education.
- Knight, J., 2003a, ‘GATS, Trade and Higher Education—Perspective 2003: Where We?’, Policy paper. London: Observatory on Borderless Higher Education.
- Knight, J., 2003b, ‘Higher Education and Trade Agreement—What Are the Policy Implications?’, in G. Breton and M. Lambert, eds., Universities and Globalisation: Private Linkages, Public Trust, Paris: UNESCO/Université Laval/Economica.
- Knight, J., 2004a, ‘Cross-border Education: The Complexities of Globalisation, Internationalisation and Trade,’ in M. Smout, ed., Internationalisation and Quality Assurance, Pretoria, South Africa: SAUVCA.
- Knight, J., 2004b, ‘Internationalisation Remodeled: Rationales, Strategies and Approaches,’ Journal for Studies in International Education, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp.
- -31.
- Kwasi, A., 2002, ‘The General Agreement on Trade and Services, (GATS) and Africa’, Briefing Paper No. 1, Accra, Ghana: Third World Network.
- Larsen, K., and Vincent-Lancrin, S., 2002, ‘International Trade in Education Services: Good or Bad?’, Higher Education and Management Policy, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 9-45.
- Latrille, P., 2003 November, GATS and the Post-secondary System, paper sponsored by WTO at Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development/Norway Forum on Trade in Education Services, Trondheim, Norway.
- Levy, D., 2003, Expanding Higher Education Capacity through Private Growth: Contributions and Challenges. London: Observatory on Borderless Higher
- EducationMohamedbhai, G., 2003, ‘Globalisation and Its Implications on Universities in Developing Countries,’ in G. Breton and M. Lambert, eds., Universities and Globalisation: Private Linkages, Public Trust, Paris: UNESCO/Université Laval/Economica.
- NCITE, 2001, Barriers to Trade in Transnational Education, Washington, DC: National Committee for International Trade in Education.
- Ni Sauvé, P., 2002, ‘Trade, Education and the GATS: What’s In, What’s Out, What’s All the Fuss About?’, Higher Education Management and Policy, Vol. 14, No 3, pp. 48-80.
- Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development, 2002a, ‘The Growth of Cross-border Education’, Educational Policy Analysis (Occasional publication) Paris: Organisation for Economic and Community Development. pp. 89-115.
- Pillay, P., 2003, ‘The General Agreement on Trade in Services, (GATS): Implications and Possible Ways Forward for the South African Development Community (SADC)’, paper presented at UNESCO Conference on Globalisation and Higher Education, Oslo, Norway.
- SAUVCA, 2002, Briefing Document on WTO, GATS and Higher Education.
- Pretoria, South Africa: South African Universities Vice-Chancellors Association. Sawyerr, A., 2002, Challenges Facing African Universities: Selected Issues, Accra, Ghana: Association of African Universities.
- Sehoole, C., 2004, Higher Education in Africa and the Challenges of Trade in Education, unpublished paper.
- Singh, M., 2001, ‘Re-inserting the “Public Good” into Higher Education Transformation,’ Kagisano. Publication of the Council on Higher Education, South Africa. Issue No. 1.
- Teferra, D., 2004, ‘Intellectual African Nomads in the Information Wonderland’, International Association Newsletter, Vol. 10, No. 1–2, pp. 1–3.
- UNESCO and Council of Europe, 2001, The UNESCO-CEPES/Council of Europe Code of Good Practice for the Provision of Transnational Education. Paris: UNESCO. Van Damme, D., 2002, ‘Trends and Models in International Quality Assurance in Higher Education in Relation to Trade in Education’, Higher Education Management and Policy, Vol. 14, No 3, pp. 93–136.
- World Trade Organisation (WTO), 1998, Education Services: Background Note by the Secretariat, Geneva: Council for Trade in Services. (S/C/W/49, 98-3691) World Trade Organisation, 1999a, An Introduction to the GATS. Geneva: WTO.
- World Trade Organisation, 1999b, The General Agreement in Trade in Services: Objectives, Coverage and Disciplines. Geneva: WTO.
- World Trade Organisation, 2001. GATS: Fact and Fiction. Geneva: World Trade Organisation.
References
Accra Declaration on GATS and the Internationalisation of Higher Education in Africa, April 29, 2004, Retrieved on 12 August 2004, from http://www.aau.org/ wto-gats/declaration.htm.
(EI/PSI), Education International/Public Services International, 1999, The WTO and the Millennium Round: What Is at Stake for Public Education? Seattle,WA. Retrieved on August 12, 2004, from http://www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/bwi-wto/idxstl99.htm.
Education International/Public Services International, 2000, Great Expectations: The Future of Trade in Services. Brussels, Belgium. Retrieved on August 12, 2004, from http://www.ei-ie.org.
Ensor, L., 2003, March 6, Business Day (newspaper), 1st ed.
Garrett, R., 2003, Mapping the Education Industry. Part 2: Public Companies—Relationships with Higher Education, London: Observatory on Borderless Higher Education.
Gottlieb and Pearson [law firm, Ottawa], 2001, ‘GATS Impact on Education in Canada’. Legal opinion.
Jowi, J. O., 2003, ‘Trade in Higher Education Services: The Kenyan Case’, in P.
Pillay, P. Masseen, N. Cloete, (eds.), GATS and Higher Education in SADC, Rondebosch, South Africa: Centre for Higher Education Transformation (CHET).
Knight, J., 2002, Trade in Higher Education Services: The Implications of GATS, London: Observatory on Borderless Higher Education.
Knight, J., 2003a, ‘GATS, Trade and Higher Education—Perspective 2003: Where We?’, Policy paper. London: Observatory on Borderless Higher Education.
Knight, J., 2003b, ‘Higher Education and Trade Agreement—What Are the Policy Implications?’, in G. Breton and M. Lambert, eds., Universities and Globalisation: Private Linkages, Public Trust, Paris: UNESCO/Université Laval/Economica.
Knight, J., 2004a, ‘Cross-border Education: The Complexities of Globalisation, Internationalisation and Trade,’ in M. Smout, ed., Internationalisation and Quality Assurance, Pretoria, South Africa: SAUVCA.
Knight, J., 2004b, ‘Internationalisation Remodeled: Rationales, Strategies and Approaches,’ Journal for Studies in International Education, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp.
-31.
Kwasi, A., 2002, ‘The General Agreement on Trade and Services, (GATS) and Africa’, Briefing Paper No. 1, Accra, Ghana: Third World Network.
Larsen, K., and Vincent-Lancrin, S., 2002, ‘International Trade in Education Services: Good or Bad?’, Higher Education and Management Policy, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 9-45.
Latrille, P., 2003 November, GATS and the Post-secondary System, paper sponsored by WTO at Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development/Norway Forum on Trade in Education Services, Trondheim, Norway.
Levy, D., 2003, Expanding Higher Education Capacity through Private Growth: Contributions and Challenges. London: Observatory on Borderless Higher
EducationMohamedbhai, G., 2003, ‘Globalisation and Its Implications on Universities in Developing Countries,’ in G. Breton and M. Lambert, eds., Universities and Globalisation: Private Linkages, Public Trust, Paris: UNESCO/Université Laval/Economica.
NCITE, 2001, Barriers to Trade in Transnational Education, Washington, DC: National Committee for International Trade in Education.
Ni Sauvé, P., 2002, ‘Trade, Education and the GATS: What’s In, What’s Out, What’s All the Fuss About?’, Higher Education Management and Policy, Vol. 14, No 3, pp. 48-80.
Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development, 2002a, ‘The Growth of Cross-border Education’, Educational Policy Analysis (Occasional publication) Paris: Organisation for Economic and Community Development. pp. 89-115.
Pillay, P., 2003, ‘The General Agreement on Trade in Services, (GATS): Implications and Possible Ways Forward for the South African Development Community (SADC)’, paper presented at UNESCO Conference on Globalisation and Higher Education, Oslo, Norway.
SAUVCA, 2002, Briefing Document on WTO, GATS and Higher Education.
Pretoria, South Africa: South African Universities Vice-Chancellors Association. Sawyerr, A., 2002, Challenges Facing African Universities: Selected Issues, Accra, Ghana: Association of African Universities.
Sehoole, C., 2004, Higher Education in Africa and the Challenges of Trade in Education, unpublished paper.
Singh, M., 2001, ‘Re-inserting the “Public Good” into Higher Education Transformation,’ Kagisano. Publication of the Council on Higher Education, South Africa. Issue No. 1.
Teferra, D., 2004, ‘Intellectual African Nomads in the Information Wonderland’, International Association Newsletter, Vol. 10, No. 1–2, pp. 1–3.
UNESCO and Council of Europe, 2001, The UNESCO-CEPES/Council of Europe Code of Good Practice for the Provision of Transnational Education. Paris: UNESCO. Van Damme, D., 2002, ‘Trends and Models in International Quality Assurance in Higher Education in Relation to Trade in Education’, Higher Education Management and Policy, Vol. 14, No 3, pp. 93–136.
World Trade Organisation (WTO), 1998, Education Services: Background Note by the Secretariat, Geneva: Council for Trade in Services. (S/C/W/49, 98-3691) World Trade Organisation, 1999a, An Introduction to the GATS. Geneva: WTO.
World Trade Organisation, 1999b, The General Agreement in Trade in Services: Objectives, Coverage and Disciplines. Geneva: WTO.
World Trade Organisation, 2001. GATS: Fact and Fiction. Geneva: World Trade Organisation.